Psikologi Kognitif (PI 218) SENSASI – PERSEPSI – ATENSI

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1 Psikologi Kognitif (PI 218) SENSASI – PERSEPSI – ATENSI
Maria A. Tobing, S.Psi. Fakultas Psikologi UKSW 2012

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3 OTAK KOMPUTASIONAL Kita melihat, mendengar, mengecap, dan merasakan sensasi dari dunia sebagai rantai pertama dalam tahapan kejadian yang selanjutnya melibatkan penyandian stimuli; penyimpanan informasi; pengubahan material; berpikir; dan, akhirnya, memberikan reaksi sesuai pengetahuan yang didapatkan.

4 Tahap awal pemrosesan informasi
Persepsi: proses mendeteksi dan menginterprestasikan informasi dengan menggunakan pengetahuan yang telah disimpan dalam ingatan: Pencatatan indera Pengenalan pola Atensi

5 Proses Sensasi & Persepsi
Sensation & Perception Proses Sensasi & Persepsi 4/3/2017 Figure 3.Davis 2 from: Kassin, S. (1998). Psychology, second edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada ©1999 Prentice Hall

6 Ambang Batas Mutlak Jumlah terkecil energi fisik yang dapat secara konsisten terdeteksi indera. (Wade & Tavris, 2008)

7 Psychology 101 On-line Sensation & Perception AMBANG BATAS MUTLAK 09/15/99 Penglihatan: Melihat nyala lilin dalam malam yang jelas dan gelap dari jarak 30 mil. Pendengaran: Detak jam dalam ruangan yang benar-benar sunyi yang terletak 6 meter dari Anda. Penciuman: Bau dari setetes parfum yang menyebar dalam sebuah apartemen 3 kamar. Peraba: merasakan sayap dari seekor lebah yang jatuh ke pipi Anda hanya dari ketinggian 1 cm. Pengecap: satu sendok teh gula yang dilarutkan dalam 2 galon air. Source: Davis, S., & Palladino, J. (1997). Discovering Psychology.Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. ©1999 Prentice Hall

8 Sensation & Perception
4/3/2017 Efek-efek Konteks Stimulus yang memiliki kesamaan fisik, dapat diinterpretasikan scr berbeda. Kita cenderung menggunakan petunjuk lain dalam situasi untuk mengatasi ambigusitas. Apakah ini huruf B atau angka 13? Figure 3.Davis 29 from: Kassin, S. (1998). Psychology, second edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada ©1999 Prentice Hall

9 Sensation & Perception
4/3/2017 Struktur Retina Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada ©1999 Prentice Hall

10 Test of Colour Deficiency
Sensation & Perception 4/3/2017 Test of Colour Deficiency Figure 3.12 from: Kassin, S. (1998). Psychology, second edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada ©1999 Prentice Hall

11 Sensation and Perception
4/3/2017 Trichromatic Theory T. Young (1802) & H. von Helmholtz (1852) both proposed that the eye detects 3 primary colors red, blue, & green All other colors can be derived by combining these three Figure 3.9 from: Kassin, S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. ©2002 Prentice Hall ©2002 Prentice Hall

12 Introducing Psychology
Negative Afterimages 4/3/2017 Demonstration instructions: Opponent-process cells that switch on or off in response to green send an opposite message (red) when the green is removed, producing a negative afterimage. Stare at the black dot in the middle of this heart for at least 20 seconds. Then shift your gaze to a while piece of paper (or a white wall). What do you see? (should see red heart with blue border) Negative afterimage – seeing, for instance, red after staring at green; the cells that switch on or off to signal the presence of “green” send the opposite signal (“red”) when the green is removed – and vice versa Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada ©1999 Prentice Hall

13 Teori Opponent-Process
A competing theory of color vision, which assumes that the visual system treats pairs of colors as opposing or antagonistic. Opponent-Process cells are inhibited by a color, and have a burst of activity when it is removed. VS VS VS ©2002 Prentice Hall

14 Sensation & Perception
4/3/2017 The Visual Cliff Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada ©1999 Prentice Hall

15 Sensation and Perception
4/3/2017 The Visual Cliff Devised by Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk to test depth perception Glass surface, with checkerboard underneath at different heights Visual illusion of a cliff Baby can’t fall Mom stands across the gap Babies show increased attention over deep side at age 2 months, but aren’t afraid until about the age they can crawl Figure 3.27 from: Kassin, S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. ©2002 Prentice Hall ©2002 Prentice Hall

16 Sensation and Perception
4/3/2017 Visual Illusions Illusions are valuable in understanding perception because they are systematic errors. Illusions provide hints about perceptual strategies In the Muller-Lyer illusion (above) we tend to perceive the line on the right as slightly longer than the one on the left. Figure 5.07 from Wade, C., & Tavris, C. (2002). Invitation to Psychology, 2nd Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. ©2002 Prentice Hall ©2002 Prentice Hall

17 Fooling the Eye The cats in (a) are the same size
The diagonal lines in (b) are parallel You can create a “floating fingertip frankfurter” by holding hands as shown, 5-10” in front of face. ©2002 Prentice Hall

18 Other Senses Taste: Savory Sensations Smell: The Sense of Scents
Senses of the Skin The Mystery of Pain The Environment Within ©2002 Prentice Hall

19 Taste: Savory Sensations
Papillae: Knoblike elevations on the tongue, containing the taste buds (Singular: papilla). Taste buds: Nests of taste-receptor cells. ©2002 Prentice Hall

20 Smell: The Sense of Scents
Airborne chemical molecules enter the nose and circulate through the nasal cavity. Vapors can also enter through the mouth and pass into nasal cavity. Receptors on the roof of the nasal cavity detect these molecules. ©2002 Prentice Hall

21 Gate-Control Theory of Pain
Experience of pain depends (in part) on whether the pain impulse gets past neurological “gate” in the spinal cord and thus reaches the brain. ©2002 Prentice Hall

22 Neuromatrix Theory of Pain
Theory that the matrix of neurons in the brain is capable of generating pain (and other sensations) in the absence of signals from sensory nerves. ©2002 Prentice Hall

23 Dua proses dalam Persepsi:
Bottom-up Top-down

24 Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi persepsi:
Familiaritas objek Ukuran Intensitas Konteks objek

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26 Pengaruh Psikologis & Budaya
Introducing Psychology Pengaruh Psikologis & Budaya 4/3/2017 Persepsi juga dipengaruhi oleh: Needs: more likely to perceive something when we need or have an interest in it Beliefs: what we believe can affect what we perceive Emotions: can influence interpretations of sensory information (especially pain & fear) Expectations: previous experiences influence what we perceive (e.g., perceptual set) Perceptual set – a habitual way of perceiving, based on expectations Each of these factors is influenced by culture – e.g., some African tribes are less likely to be fooled by the Muller-Lyer illusion and other geometric illusions than were Westerners (experiential factors) Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada ©1999 Prentice Hall

27 Rentang perseptual Proses perseptual terdiri dari  pendeteksian & penginterpretasian realita sebagaimana yang ditentukan oleh stimulus yang diindra, struktur sistem sensorik dan otak, & pengetahuan sebelumnya. Studi-studi rentang perseptual membahas pertanyaan mendasar tentang jumlah informasi yang dapat dipahami manusia dalam periode pemaparan yang singkat. Aktivitas pelaporan stimuli yang diolah dari presentasi singkat terdiri dari dua tahap: 1) persepsi (penginderaan informasi sensorik yang aktual), dan 2) mengingat (recall-kemampuan melaporkan apa yang telah diindera sebelum informasi tersebut memudar dari penyimpanan).

28 Penyimpanan ikonik Neisser (1967)  memori ikonik: kemampuan kesan-kesan visual untuk menetap selama jangka waktu singkat (sehingga bisa diproses lebih lanjut). Penyimpanan ikonik memiliki kapasitas sekurang-kurangnya sembilan item dengan jangka waktu penyimpanan sekitar 250 milidetik. George Sperling (1960)  berargumen bahwa jika ikon sedang memudar saat sedang berusaha melaporkan seluruh huruf ke dalam penyimpanan ikoniknya, maka laporan huruf menjadi parsial.

29 Penyimpanan ekhoik Informasi auditorik disimpan dalam ruang penyimpanan agar dapat diolah lebih lanjut. Penyimpanan ekhoik menyimpan input auditorik dengan durasi sekitar 4 detik. Penelitian Moray, dkk (1965)  kemampuan mengingat pada metode pelaporan parsial (dengan menggabungkan isyarat cahaya & suara) jauh lebih baik daripada pelaporan penuh.

30 FUNGSI PENYIMPANAN SENSORIK
Penyimpanan ikonik & ekhoik memungkinkan manusia memilih informasi yg relevan untuk pemprosesan lebih lanjut . Dengan menyimpan kesan sensorik yang lengkap selama suatu periode singkat memahami situasi yang berlangsung dengan cepat, memilih stimuli yang paling menyolok & menempatkan stimuli tsb ke memori manusia berbentuk matriks yang rumit. Dengan demikian, penyimpanan ini memberikan solusi bagi keterbatasan sistem saraf manusia.

31 Pria manapun yang sanggup menyetir mobil dengan selamat sambil mencium seorang gadis cantik berarti tidak mencium dengan sungguh-sungguh! -Albert Einstein-

32 ATENSI Pemusatan pikiran terhadap suatu objek dan pada saat yang sama seseorang mengabaikan objek-objek yang lain.

33 ATENSI Pengambilalihan pikiran, dalam bentuknya yang jelas dan terpilah-pilah, terhadap sesuatu yang berasal dari apa yang serentak merupakan obyek-obyek sekaligus rangkaian pikiran yang tepat. (Sternberg) Proses konsentrasi pikiran atau pemusatan aktivitas mental (atention is a consentration of mental activity). (Suharnan)

34 Teori-teori Atensi: Bottle-neck concept Filter Theory Capacity Theory

35 Dua macam atensi: Atensi terbagi Atensi selektif
 Otomatisasi / proses otomatisitas

36 Pemprosesan otomatis Aktivitas yang telah dilatih dengan baik (atau sering)  menjadi otomatis sehingga memerlukan atensi yang lebih sedikit dibandingkan melakukan aktivitas baru/belum dikuasai. Tiga karakteristik pemprosesan otomatis (Posner & Snyder): Pemprosesan otomatis terjadi tanpa ada niat sadar. Pemprosesan otomatis tersembunyi dari kesadaran. Pemprosesan otomatis menggunakan hanya sedikit (atau tidak sama sekali) sumber daya sadar.

37 Kapasitas pemprosesan & atensi selektif
Kita memilih hanya sebagian kecil stimuli dari seluruh stimuli yang ada di sekeliling kita, tampak dari berbagai peristiwa sehari-hari, sebagaimana yang disebutkan sebelumnya. Selektivitas stimuli  terjadi akibat kurangnya kapasitas saluran, yakni ketidakmampuan kita memproses seluruh stimuli sensorik secara bersamaan. Keterbatasan kapasitas & atensi selektif mengimplikasikan  adanya kemacetan (bottleneck) struktural dalam pemprosesan informasi.

38 Fenomena-fenomena dalam Persepsi
Subliminal Perception/persepsi bawah sadar Illusion/kesalahan persepsi Hallucination Delusion: a false or mistaken belief or idea about something.

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43 Pandangan neurosains kognitif tentang atensi:
Penelitian terbaru dalam neurosains kognitif telah mempelajari atensi dan telah mencari korelasi antara bagian-bagian otak dengan mekanisme pengolahan atensi.  Hubungan antara anatomi otak dan atensi.

44 Extrasensory Perception (ESP)
Sensation & Perception 4/3/2017 Extrasensory Perception (ESP) Extrasensory Perception (ESP): The ability to perceive something without ordinary sensory information This has not been scientifically demonstrated Three types of ESP: Telepathy – Mind-to-mind communication Clairvoyance – Perception of remote events Precognition – Ability to see future events Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada ©1999 Prentice Hall

45 Sensation & Perception
4/3/2017 Parapsychology Figure 3.33 from: Kassin, S. (1998). Psychology, second edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. J. B. Rhine conducted many experiments on ESP using stimuli such as these Rhine believed that his evidence supported the existence of ESP, but his findings were flawed Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada ©1999 Prentice Hall

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47 Sekian untuk hari ini, kita lanjutkan minggu depan..

48 PENGENALAN POLA Pattern Recognition

49 Plato berkata.. “Bentuk paling sederhana dari berpikir adalah pengenalan terhadap objek yang dilihat. Bentuk paling rumit dari berpikir adalah intuisi komprehensif dari seseorang yang memandang segala benda sebagai bagian dari suatu sistem.”

50 Pengenalan pola melibatkan sebuah interaksi rumit antara sensasi, persepsi, memori, dan pencarian kognitif dengan tujuan pengenalan terhadap pola tersebut. Proses pengenalan suatu objek diselesaikan kurang dari sedetik.

51 TEORI-TEORI PERSEPTUAL
Persepsi konstruktif Manusia “mengkonstruksi” persepsi dengan secara aktif memilih stimuli dan menggabungkan sensasi dengan memori. Interferensi bawah sadar, top-down processing. Persepsi langsung Persepsi terbentuk dari perolehan informasi secara langsung dari lingkungan. Bottom-up processing,

52 PENGENALAN POLA VISUAL

53 Ceritakan apa yang Anda lihat?
Using one word, what does this picture represent to you?

54 Sekarang lihatlah keseluruhan gambarnya.
This isn’t the entire picture. (click) Now what does this picture represent to you? Has your perception changed based on the complete picture? This is the basis for Gestalt Theory “Gestalt” does not translate directly into English It has to do with the way things are placed or put together For example, think of a book. What does the word “book” mean to you. Now think of “words”, “illustrations”, and “pictures”. Alone, each of these may represent something other than a book. But, when put together, they are all the components of a book.

55 An Attempt at a Definition
“The basic thesis of Gestalt theory might be formulated thus: there are contexts in which what is happening in the whole cannot be deduced from the characteristics of the separate pieces, but conversely; what happens to a part of the whole is, in clear-cut cases, determined by the laws of the inner structure of its whole.” - Max Wertheimer (1924) Germans Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Koffka, were the original founders of Gestalt theory. Unfortunately, due to the rise of the socialist movement in Germany and World War II, all three men emigrated to the United States which interrupted their work and the anti-German sentiment hindered further development of the theory. Wertheimer’s main focus was on problem-solving. He thought problems, rather than being broken into pieces, should be seen as a whole in order to develop a deeper understanding of the situation. Koffka applied the theory to psychology. Kohler experimented with animals. He argued against the popular stimulus-response theories of the day. In an experiment with apes he placed food just out of their reach and provided them with a variety of tools such as boxes and poles. Using their knowledge of “the whole” – what they wanted and what tools they had to get it – the apes were able to get to the food.

56 Additional Applications
Music Objects Wertheimer attended lectures by Christian Von Ehrenfels in the 1890s. Ehrenfels determined a melody is recognizable even when in a different key or tempo. Wertheimer concluded there must be something about the whole melody that is distinct from its individual notes. Two triangles, when placed together can form a square. (click) The same to triangles can also make a parallelogram. (click) Or a diamond. (click) It isn’t the individual pieces that matter but how the pieces fit together to make a whole. diamond square parallelogram

57 Law of Proximity Objects or shapes that are close to one another appear to form groups. Six laws of Gestalt theory can be applied to the instructional design process. In the two groupings above, do you see rows or columns? The circles are identical but each group is seen differently. Why? (click) Does changing the color or shape change the way the each group is viewed? Why not? When designing instruction, items should be grouped appropriately. Information that is not relevant to the task at hand can mislead or confuse the audience.

58 Law of Closure Objects that are incomplete force the viewer to “fill in the gaps.” How many triangles do you see in this figure? Is there really even one complete triangle? (click) Part of this picture is cut off. Do you know what the rest of it looks like? How do you know? What if you were unfamiliar with the object? When designing instruction, items should be closed so the audience is not forced to make assumptions that might be incorrect. For example, placing boxes around groups of items helps the learner distinguish what belongs in the group and what adjacent items do not.

59 Law of Symmetry Asymmetrical objects tend to force the viewer to search for symmetry. How many objects do you see in the figure above? If you saw two large diamonds of equal size, you were searching for symmetry in the figure. Could there not be three objects: a small diamond with an irregular shape above it and below it? When grouping information during the instructional design process follow a logical, balanced pattern that will make sense to the learner.

60 Law of Figure-Ground Segregation
Figures should stand out from the background in order to be seen. What do you see in this figure? Is it an old man or two people kissing? (click) It is much easier to see when the background is in a contrasting color. (click) What do you see in this picture? Did you find the Dalmatian? (click) How many horses do you see in this picture? More than four? Designers should be very aware of ensuring contrast between background and foreground information. Too little contrast between the two leaves the audience confused. This applies to visuals as well as text.

61 Law of Good Continuation
Viewers tend to continue shapes beyond their ending points. How many lines do you see in the figure? Two? (click) But there are actually four. (click) More than likely, when you saw this picture, your eyes followed the curve of the beach noticing all the details that lie on that path. Instructional designers can use this knowledge to draw attention to elements in a specific order or along an established line of sight.

62 Law of Similarity Objects that appear to be similar will be grouped together in the viewer’s mind. The tendency here is for the viewer to think of the triangles in the middle of this figure as one group and the circles on the outside as another group. Although the color is the same, the shapes are different enough to imply groups. (click) In this figure contains identical shapes, color is used to define the “T” in the middle. To facilitate grouping, instructional designers should use the law of similarity when developing a heading structure, a color scheme, or other design features.

63 Quiz Which law of Gestalt theory is being violated in this figure?
Proximity Closure Symmetry Figure-Ground Segregation Good Continuation Similarity

64 Quiz Which law of Gestalt theory is used to create a group of six and a group of three in this figure? Proximity Closure Symmetry Figure-Ground Segregation Good Continuation Similarity

65 Quiz Which law of Gestalt theory is being used to draw attention to the lower-right corner of the screen? Proximity Closure Symmetry Figure-Ground Segregation Good Continuation Similarity

66 Quiz Which law of Gestalt theory is illustrated in the top figure but not the bottom figure? Proximity Closure Symmetry Figure-Ground Segregation Good Continuation Similarity &

67 Quiz Which law of Gestalt theory is used to create groups of four in this figure? Proximity Closure Symmetry Figure-Ground Segregation Good Continuation Similarity

68 Quiz Which law of Gestalt theory is poorly implemented in this picture? Proximity Closure Symmetry Figure-Ground Segregation Good Continuation Similarity

69 References Daniels, V. (2005). Sources for Gestalt therapy and Gestalt psychology around the world. Retrieved November 1, 2005 from Fulkes, M. (1995). The Gestalt of composition. Retrieved October 31, 2005 from Saw, J. T. (2000). 2D design notes: Art 104: Design and composition. Retrieved November 2, 2005 from Skallid, B. (1999). Gestalt principles of perception. Retrieved November 7, 2005 from Stemberger, Gerhard (1997). The international society for Gestalt theory and it’s applications. Retrieved October 31, 2005 from Torrans, C. (1999). Gestalt and instructional design. Retrieved October 31, 2005 from

70 PEMROSESAN BOTTOM-UP TOP-DOWN
Teori yang mengajukan gagasan bahwa proses pengenalan diawali oleh identifikasi terhadap bagian-bagian spesifik dari suatu pola, yang menjadi landasan bagi pengenalan pola secara keseluruhan. TOP-DOWN Teori yang mengajukan gagasan bahwa proses pengenalan diawali oleh suatu hipotesis mengenai identitas suatu pola, yang diikuti oleh pengenalan terhadap bagian-bagian pola tersebut, berdasarkan asumsi yang sebelumnya telah dibuat.

71 PENCOCOKAN TEMPLATE Ibarat lubang kunci dan kunci yang tepat.
Pengalaman sepanjang hidup kita telah membentuk sejumlah besar template, dan masing-masing template terasosiasi dengan sebuah makna yang spesifik.

72 PENCOCOKAN TEMPLATE Cara kerja:
Energi cahaya yang dipantulkan oleh bentuk tsb diterima retina dan ditransduksi ke energi neural, yang dikirim ke otak. Otak melakukan pencarian dalam arsip template untuk mencari template yang cocok dengan pola neural yang diterima. Jika otak menemukan sebuah template yang cocok dengan pola neural tersebut, maka orang akan mengenali apa yang dilihatnya. Setelah pencocokan antara bentuk dan templatenya telah dilakukan, pemrosesan dan interpretasi lebih lanjut terhadap bentuk dapat dilakukan.