Module 2 Perancangan Organisasi dan SDM Desain Struktur Organisasi, Budaya Organisasi dan Pengembangan Organisasi PowerPoint Presentation by Charlie Cook Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.

Our Personal “Schemas” Schema defined A cognitive structure that represents how individuals construct their own maps of the social world How schemas lead us astray: Schemas become outdated Schemas are resistant to change Schemas become universal rules Schemas are incomplete

Three Classic Lenses on Organizations Strategic Design Lens Organization Political Lens Cultural Lens

Choosing a View of the Organization The strategic design lens How the flow of tasks and information is designed How people are sorted into roles How these roles are related How the organization can be rationally optimized to achieve its goals Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. Class Note: Introduction

Choosing a View (cont’d) The political lens How power and influence are distributed and wielded How multiple stakeholders express their different preferences and get involved in (or excluded from) decisions How conflicts can be resolved Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. Class Note: Introduction

Choosing a View (cont’d) The cultural lens How history has shaped the assumptions and meanings of different people How certain practices take on special meaningfulness and even become rituals How stories and other artifacts shape the feel of an organization Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. Class Note: Introduction

The Strategic Design Lens Organization Political Lens Cultural Lens Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.

Key Elements of Organization Design Grouping (differentiation) Drawing boundaries around clusters of tasks or activities to define jobs, departments, processes Linking (integration) Creating links across organizational boundaries Alignment Positioning elements of the organization (such as rewards and incentives) to provide access to the resources and the incentives to do the tasks assigned Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. Class Note: The Strategic Design Lens

Elements of Organization Design (cont’d) Task Basic element of organization design Smallest unit of activities that need to be performed if organization is to realize strategic goals. Tasks vary in: Complexity Level of routinization Interdependence Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.

Elements of Organization Design (cont’d) Task interdependence varies from low to high Kinds of interdependence: Pooled: interdependent tasks are undertaken at the same time Sequential: one task is completed and then handed off for the next stage Reciprocal: tasks are conducted in repeated interaction with each other Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.

Forms of Interdependence Pooled Sequential Reciprocal Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. Class Notes: The Strategic Design Lens Figure 2.1

Strategic Grouping Basic grouping structures: By expertise/function By output/product By market (geography or customer) Hybrid grouping structures: Matrix organization Front/back structure Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. Class Notes: The Strategic Design Lens

Functional Grouping Structure Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. Class Notes: The Strategic Design Lens Figure 2.2

Business or Product Division Structure Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. Class Notes: The Strategic Design Lens Figure 2.3

Marketing Group Structure Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. Class Notes: The Strategic Design Lens Figure 2.4

Functional/Product Matrix Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. Class Notes: The Strategic Design Lens Figure 2.5

Front/Back Structure Back End Front End Figure 2.6 Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. Class Notes: The Strategic Design Lens Figure 2.6

Strategic Linking Linking: designing formal/informal structures and processes to connect and coordinate units Linking mechanisms: Formal reporting structures that follow organization’s hierarchy Liaison roles Integrator roles Permanent and temporary cross-unit groups Information technology systems Planning processes Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. Class Notes: The Strategic Design Lens

Strategic Alignment Alignment: ensuring that units and individuals have necessary resources and motivation Alignment systems: Organization performance measurement systems Individual rewards and incentives Resource allocation Human resource development Informal systems and processes Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. Class Notes: The Strategic Design Lens

Strategic Organizational Design Process Process of design involves costs: Disruption of normal flow of business Risk to long-term relationships with key customers and suppliers Stress and anxiety Reasons for organization redesign: Response to growth of organization Management succession stimulates change Required as a result of internal problems Current design no longer fits external environment Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.

The Political Lens on Organizations Strategic Design Lens Organization Political Lens Cultural Lens Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.

Organization as Political System Politics may be perceived as dark side of an organization Unwillingness to deal with political aspects of organization is a serious handicap for anyone trying to take action in an organizational setting Core concepts of the political perspective: Interests Power Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. Class Notes: The Political Lens

Organization as Political System (cont’d) First step: recognizing that interests are important Organizational behavior grounded in interests Collective interests are those shared by others in a group or category Stakeholders: groups that have a shared “stake” affected by the organization Internal stakeholders—those within an organization External stakeholders—suppliers, customers, communities, shareholders Next step: analyzing what interests are and what priority they have individually and collectively Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. Class Notes: The Political Lens

Organization as Political System (cont’d) Power: ability to influence behavior of others Sources of power: Personal characteristics Scarce and valued expertise Past performance/track record Formal position in organization Informal position in organization or social network Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. Class Notes: The Political Lens

Organization as Political System (cont’d) Influence from social network often more significant than authority from formal position Key factors in power of social networks: Size of network Number of powerful people in network Position in network Redundance vs. efficiency Acting as an information bridge in a “structural hole” in an organizational network Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. Class Notes: The Political Lens

Sources of Power Personal Characteristics Scarce and Valued Expertise Energy and physical stamina Focus Sensitivity to interests of others Flexibility Ability to tolerate conflict Ability to submerge one’s ego in order to get something accomplished Scarce and Valued Expertise Track Record Formal Position in Organizational Hierarchy Informal Network Position Figure 2.9

Using the Political Lens Successful political strategies for taking effective action in organizations can include: Mapping interests and power Getting “buy-in” Finding allies and building a coalition Building a network Building negotiation skills Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.

The Formal Network Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. The Press: Informal Network

The Advice Network Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. The Press: Informal Network

The Trust Network Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. The Press: Informal Network

The Cultural Lens on Organizations Strategic Design Lens Organization Political Lens Cultural Lens Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. Class Note: The Cultural Lens

A Definition of Culture Culture refers to the symbolic or expressive side of human life Actions, objects, and ideas that carry specific meanings to particular groups and hence stand for something Culture provides a template on which meanings are read and actions are based Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. Class Note: The Cultural Lens

Cultural Perspective Cultural perspective focuses on meanings people assign to their respective work experiences Key to cultural perspective is symbolism Symbols: Are cultural objects or artifacts whose form, appearance, logic, and type can be categorized Are produced and used by people and groups within organizations for certain purposes Are always put forth in a particular period and context Mean different things to different people Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. Class Note: The Cultural Lens

Organizational Culture Culture and control—changing culture to motivate workers: Alter the organizational structure to bring employees closer to centers of control and decision making Create preferred organizational culture directly by recruitment, selection, training, placement, etc. Promote conceptual models of thought and action for employees to follow Employees that exhibit exemplary behavior become models of desirable behavior Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. Class Note: The Cultural Lens

Organizational Culture (cont’d) Subcultures Groups of people who share common identities based on characteristics that transcend or override their prescribed roles and relationships May form along class or ethnic lines because of cultural similarities Focus on subcultures emphasizes segmentation of organization culture Divisions form by organizational role, gender, religion, ethnicity, age, etc. Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. Class Note: The Cultural Lens

Cultural Diagnosis of Organizations Six important features of the cultural lens on organizations: Symbols and meaning Identity Social control Subcultures Cultural relativity Habits and history Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.

Some Underlying Dimensions of Organizational Culture The organization’s relationship to its environment The nature of human activity The nature of reality and truth The nature of time The nature of human nature The nature of human relationships Homogeneity vs. diversity The Press: Organizational Culture Source: Tables adapted from Edgar H. Schein, Organizational Culture and Leadership. Copyright © 1985 by Jossey-Bass, Inc., Publishers. Used with permission. Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. Table 2.2

The Action Company Paradigm Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. The Press: Organizational Culture Figure 2.1

The Multi-Company Paradigm Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. The Press: Organizational Culture Figure 2.2

Pengembangan Organisasi

Pengertian Pengembangan Organisasi Pengembangan Organisasi (PO) merupakan cara pendekatan terhadap perubahan yang berjangka panjang dan lebih luas ruang lingkupnya dengan tujuan untuk menggerakkan seluruh organisasi ke arah tingkat fungsional yang lebih tinggi. Makna pengembangan oraganisasi menurut beberapa ahli Robbins, pengembangan organisasi adalah sebuah metode yang bertujuan mengubah sikap, nilai dan keyakinan dari karyawan sehingga karyawan itu sendiri dapat mengidentifikasi dan mengimplementasikan perubahan teknis seperti reorganisasi, fasilitas yang dirancang ulang dan hal-hal yang dibutuhkan untuk meningkatkan organisasi mereka. Christine S. Becker mendefinisikan pengembangan organisasi adalah suatu proses dari perubahan berencana terhadap orang – orang yang ada yang ada dalam organisasi secara keseluruhan. Pusat perhatiannya adalah perubahan organisasi dengan meneliti orang – orang yang ada dalam organisasi tersebut, mengenai bagaimana mereka bekerja sama sebagai suatu kesatuan, bagaimana berfungsi dalam unit merek masing-masing, dan apa yang perlu diubah sehingga mereka dapat bekerja secara efektif.

Lanjutan French dan Bell, pengembangan organisasi adalah suatu usaha jangka panjag untuk memperbaiki proses-proses pemecahan masalah dan pembaharuan organisasi, terutama melalui manajemen budaya organisasi yang lebih efektif dan kolaboratif dengan tekanan khusus pada budaya tim kerja formal dengan bantuan agen perubahan (change agent), katalisator, dan pengguna teori serta teknologi ilmiah kepeilakuan terapan dan mencakup riset kegiatan. Bennis, pengembangan organisasi adalah suatu tanggapan terhadap perubahan, suaru strategi komplek yang bersifat pendidikan yang dimaksudkan untuk merubah berbagai pandangan, sikap, nilai dan struktur organisasi, agar organisasi dapat menyesuaikan secara lebih baik dengan teknologi, pasar dan tantangan-tantangan baru, serta tingkat kesulitan perubahan itu sendiri.

Teknik Pengembangan Organisasi Latihan Kepekaan (Sensitifity Training) Pembentukan Tim (Team Building) Survei Umpan Balik (Survey Feedback) Transcational Analysis (TA) Intergroup Activities; Konsultasi Proses (Process Consultation) Third-part Peacemaking;

Model Pengembangan Organisasi Pengenalan Persoalan Analisa Organisasi Umpan Balik Pengukuran dan Penilaian Pengembangan Organisasi Intervensi Intervensi

Model Pengembangan Organisasi Model pengembangan yang dijelaskan pada gambar yang terdapat dalam pembahasan model pengembangan organisasi, menggambarkan bahwa : Program pengembangan organisasi dimulai dari pengenalan, bahwa dalam organisasi tersebut terdapat persoalan Kemudian, persoalan didiskusikan sehingga tercapai suatu kesamaan pendapat Berdasarkan persoalan tersebut, dilakukan analisa organisasi yang dimaksudkan untuk meneliti kembali persoalan tersebut serta untuk mencari sebabnya Hasil analisa kemudian disampaikan kepada anggota organisasi dalam bentuk umpan balik Tanggapan terhadap umpan balik tersebut dapat digunakan untuk mengembangkan strategi perubahan Strategi tersebut dilaksanakan dalam bentuk intervensi nyata untuk kemudian diukur dan dinilai hasilnya, dan pada akhirnya disampaikan berupa umpan balik.

Agen Pengubah dalam Pengembangan Organisasi Dalam rumusan Havelock (1973) agen perubahan adalah orang yang membantu terlaksananya perubahan atau suatu inovasi berencana. Inovasi sendiri adalah pengenalan dan penerapan hal-hal, gagasan, ide-ide baru. Agen pengubah (change agents) dapat berasal dari : Agen Perubahan Eksternal Agen Perubahan Internal Agen Perubahan eksternal-internal

Karakteristik Agen Pengubah dala Pengembangan Organisasi Agen pengubah dalam pengembangan organisasi memiliki karakteristik sebagai berikut : Agen perubahan harus memiliki nilai-nilai dan sikap mental (attitude) Agen perubahan harus peka Agen perubahan harus mempunyai keterampilan

Peran Utama Agen Pengubah dalam Pengembangan Organisasi Peran utama seorang agen perubahan yaitu : Sebagai katalisator yang menggerakkan anggota organisasi untuk melakukan perubahan Sebagai pemberi pemecahan persoalan Sebagai pembantu proses perubahan yaitu dalam proses pemecahan masalah dan penyebaran inovasi, serta memberi petunjuk mengenai : Bagaimana mengenali dan merumuskan kebutuhan Bagaimana mendiagnosa permasalahan dan menentukan tujuan Mendapatkan sumber-sumber yang relevan Memilih atau menciptakan pemecahan masalah Menyesuaikan dan merencanakan pentahapan pemecahan masalah

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