Mengelola Motivasi dan Kinerja Karyawan

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1 Mengelola Motivasi dan Kinerja Karyawan
CHAPTER 16 Mengelola Motivasi dan Kinerja Karyawan PowerPoint Presentation by Charlie Cook Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

2 Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Characterize the nature of motivation, including its importance and basic historical perspectives. Identify and describe the major content perspectives on motivation. Identify and describe the major process perspectives on motivation. Describe reinforcement perspectives on motivation. Identify and describe popular motivational strategies. Describe the role of organizational reward systems in motivation. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

3 Chapter Outline The Nature of Motivation
The Importance of Motivation in the Workplace Historical Perspectives on Motivation Content Perspectives on Motivation The Need Hierarchy Approach The Two-Factor Theory Individual Human Needs Process Perspectives on Motivation Expectancy Theory Equity Theory Goal-Setting Theory Reinforcement Perspectives on Motivation Kinds of Reinforcement in Organizations Providing Reinforcement in Organizations Popular Motivational Strategies Empowerment and Participation New Forms of Working Arrangements Using Reward Systems to Motivate Performance Effects of Organization Rewards Designing Effective Reward Systems Popular approaches made to client Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

4 Esensi dari Motivasi Motivasi
Sekelompok faktor yang menyebabkan individu berperilaku dalam cara-cara tertentu. Tujuan manajer : memaksimumkan probabilitas kemunculan perilaku pertama dan meminimalkan probabilitas kemunculan perilaku terakhir. Arti penting motivasi di lingkungan kerja Kinerja individu secara umum : Motivasi — keinginan melakukan pekerjaan Kemampuan — kapabilitas melakukan pekerjaan Lingkungan kerja — sumber-sumber daya yang diperlukan untuk melakukan pekerjaan Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

5 The Motivation Framework
Mencari cara-cara untuk memenuhi kebutuhan Memilih perilaku Untuk memenuhi Menentukan Masa depan dan Mencari/memilih Cara pemenuhan Evaluasi terhadap Pemenuhan Kebutuhan atau kekurangan Proses motivasi bergerak melalui serangkaian langkah terpisah. Perspektif-perspektif kepuasan, proses dan penguatan tentang motivasi ditujukan pada bagian-bagian berbeda dari proses ini. Figure 16.1 Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

6 Perspeksitf Historis Menyangkut Motivasi
Pendekatan tradisional Frederick Taylor (Scientific Management) Asumsi: Manajer tahu lebih banyak dari karyawan. Keuntungan ekonomi merupakan faktor utama untuk memotivasi karyawan . Kerja secara inheren tidak menyenangkan. Pendekatan hubungan manusia Menekankan pada peranan dari proses-proses sosial dilingkungan kerja. Karyawan ingin merasa penting dan berguna. Karyawan memiliki kebutuhan sosial yang kuat lebih penting dari uang Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

7 Perspeksitf Historis Menyangkut Motivasi (cont’d)
Pendekatan sumber daya manusia Asumsi: Kontribusi karyawan adalah penting dan berharga bagi karyawan dan organisasi. Karyawan ingin dan mampu membuat kontribusi. Tugas manajer : merangsang partisipasi dan menciptakan lingkungan kerja sedemikian rupa sehingga organisasi dapat memanfaatkan Sumber daya manusia yang tersedia Secara penuh Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

8 Perspektif Kepuasan tentang Motivasi
Content Perspectives (Perspekstif kepuasan) Menjawab pertanyaan : faktor-faktor apa yang memotivasi individu di dalam lingkungan kerja?” Pendekatan hierarki kebutuhan Hierarki kebutuhan Maslow Aldefer’s ERG Theory (teori ERG) Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory (teori 2 faktor) McClelland’s Achievement, Power, and Affiliation Needs (pencapaian, afiliasi, kekuasaan) Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 Perspektif Kepuasan tentang Motivasi (cont’d)
Pendekatan hierarki kebutuhan Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Individu-individu termotivasi untuk memenuhi lima level kebutuhan: Kebuthan fisiologis : untuk kelangsungan hidup dan fungsi iologis dasar keamanan: kebutuhan akan lingkungan fisik dan emosional yang aman Diterima orang lain : proses-proses sosial (adanya cinta kasih serta diterima oleh rekan kerja Penghargaan diri : kebutuhan akan citra diri dan penghormatan diri yang positif serta kebutuhan akan pengakuan dan penghormatan dari orang lain. Aktualisasi diri : realisasi potensi diri untuk terus tumbuh dan pengembangan diri Weakness of Maslow’s theory Lima level kebutuhan tidak selalu ada. Urutan level tidak selalu sama dan adanya perbedaan kultur. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

10 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self- actualization Esteem Belongingness Security Physiology Food Achievement Status Friendship Stability Job Friends Pension Base NEEDS General Examples Organizational Examples job Challenging title at work plan salary Figure 16.2 Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

11 Perspektif Kepuasan tentang Motivasi (cont’d)
The ERG Theory (Alderfer) Kebutuhan manusia dapat dikelompokkan ke dalam tiga kategori yang saling melengkapi : eksistensi, hubungan dan pertumbuhan. Teori ini mengubah hierarki kebutuhan Maslow: Kebutuhan eksistensi yang berkaitan dengan kebutuhan fisiologis dan keamana. Kebutuhan hubungan yang berfokus pada bagaimana individu berhubungan dengan lingkungan sosialnya Kebutuhan pertumbuhan meliputi kebutuhan akan penghargaan diri dan aktualisai diri. ERG theory assumes that: Lebih dari 1 level kebutuhan bisa menggerakkan motivasi pada saat yang bersamaan. Elemen frustasi regresi : jika kebutuhan tertentu tidak terpenuhi individu akan frustasi mundur ke level rendah dan mulai mengejar kebutuhan tsb sekali lg Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

12 Perspektif Kepuasan tentang Motivasi (cont’d)
The Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg) Kepuasan dan ketidakpuasan seseorang dipengaruhi oleh dua kelompok faktor independen- faktor penggerak motivasi dan faktor higienis. Theory assumes that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are on two distinct continuums: Motivational factors (work content): berhubungan dengan kandungan kerja Hygiene factors (work environment) : berhubungan dengan lingkungan kerja Motivation is a two-step process: Manajer harus memastikan bahwa faktor-faktor higienis telah memadai (Gaji , keamanan, supervisi teknis harus mencukupi) Menyediakan faktor-faktor penggerak motivasi kepada karyawan seperti pencapaian dan pengakuan Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

13 The Two-Factor Theory of Motivation
Satisfaction No satisfaction Motivation Factors • Prestasi Pengakuan Pekerjaan itub sendiri Tanggung jawab Peluang untuk maju dan tumbuh The Two-Factor Theory of Motivation Dissatisfaction No dissatisfaction Hygiene Factors • Supervisors Working conditions Interpersonal relations Pay and security Company policies and administration Figure 16.3 Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

14 Perspektif Kepuasan tentang Motivasi (cont’d)
Individual Human Needs (McClelland) Kebutuhan akan pencapaian Keinginan untuk menyelesaikan suatu tujuanatau tugas secara lebih efektif dibanding masa lalu Kebutuhan afiliasi Keinginan untuk ditemani dan diterima oleh manusia lain ( cenderung suka pekerjaan yang meminta banyak interaksi sosial dan menawarkan peluang untuk berteman). Kebutuhan akan kekuasaan Keinginan untuk menjadi individu yang berpengaruh di dalam sebuah kelompok dan untuk mengendalikan lingkungannya. (pekerja yang superior, memiliki c atatan kehadiran yang baik dan menduduki posisi supervisor) Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

15 Perspekstif Proses Tentang Motivasi
Perspektif proses : Pendekatan yang berfokus pada alasan individu-individu memilih beberapa perilaku tertentu untuk memenuhi kebutuhan-kebutuhan mereka dan cara mengevaluasi kepuasan mereka setelah meraih tujuan-tujuan ini. Process Perspectives of Motivation Expectancy Theory (teori pengharapan) Porter-Lawler Extension of Expectancy Theory (perluasan Porter-Lawler) Equity Theory (teori keadilan) Goal-Setting Theory (teori penetapan tujuan) Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

16 Process Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)
Expectancy Theory Motivasi bergantung pada 2 hal : seberapa kuat kita menginginkan sesuatu dan seberapa besar kemungkinan kita mendapatkannya Assumes that: Perilaku ditentukan oleh kombinasi faktor-faktor di dalam diri individu dan lingkungan Individu-individu membuat keputusan tentang perilaku mereka sendiri dalam organisasi Individu berbeda memiliki tipe-tipe kebutuhan, keinginan dan tujuan berbeda Individu membuat pilihan perilaku dari byk alternatif perilaku berbasis persepsi mereka tentang perilaku tertentu. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

17 Process Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)
Elements of Expectancy Theory Effort-to-Performance Expectancy The employee’s perception of the probability that effort will lead to a high level of performance. Performance-to-Outcome Expectancy The employee’s perception of the probability that performance will lead to a specific outcome—the consequence or reward for behaviors in an organizational setting. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

18 Process Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)
Elements of Expectancy Theory (cont’d) Valence An index of how much an individual values a particular outcome. It is the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual. Attractive outcomes have positive valences and unattractive outcomes have negative valences. Outcomes to which an individual is indifferent have zero valences. For motivated behavior to occur: Both effort-to-performance expectancy and performance-to-outcome expectancy probabilities must be greater than zero. The sum of the valences must be greater than zero. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

19 Process Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)
The Expectancy Model of Motivation Environment Motivation Effort Performance Ability Outcome Valence Figure 16.4 Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

20 Process Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)
The Porter-Lawler Extension of Expectancy Theory Assumptions: Hubungan antara kepuasan dengan kinerja ada tapi berlawanan arah, yaitu kinerja tinggi memunculkan kepuasaan tinggi. Types of rewards: Extrinsic rewards are outcomes set and awarded by external parties (e.g., pay and promotions). Intrinsic rewards are outcomes that are internal to the individual (e.g., self-esteem and feelings of accomplishment). Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

21 Process Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)
The Porter-Lawler Extension of Expectancy Theory Intrinsic rewards (outcomes) Performance Perceived equity Satisfaction Extrinsic Figure 16.5 Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

22 Process Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)
Teori keadilan Teori yang menyatakan bahwa individu-individu termotivasi untuk mencari keadlian sosial antar balas jasa yang mereka terima dengan kineraj outcomes (self) inputs (self) = outcomes (other) inputs (other) Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

23 Process Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)
Equity Theory (cont’d) Conditions of and reactions to equity comparisons: Feeling equitably rewarded. Maintain performance and accept comparison as fair estimate. Feeling under-rewarded—try to reduce inequity. Change inputs by trying harder or slacking off. Change outcomes by demanding a raise. Distort the ratios by altering perceptions of self or of others. Leave situation by quitting the job. Change comparisons by choosing another object person. Feeling over-rewarded. Increase or decrease inputs. Distort ratios by rationalizing. Help the object person gain more outcomes. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

24 Process Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)
Goal-Setting Theory Assumptions Behavior is a result of conscious goals and intentions. Setting goals influence the behavior of people in organizations. Characteristics of Goals Goal difficulty Extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort. People work harder to achieve more difficult goals. Goals should be difficult but attainable. Goal specificity Clarity and precision of the goal. Goals vary in their ability to be stated specifically. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

25 Process Perspectives on Motivation(cont’d)
Characteristics of Goals (cont’d) Acceptance The extent to which persons accept a goal as their own. Commitment The extent to which an individual is personally interested in reaching a goal. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

26 Process Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)
The Expanded Goal-Setting Theory of Motivation Goal-Directed Effort Organizational support Performance Satisfaction Extrinsic Rewards Individual abilities and traits Goal commitment Goal difficulty Goal specificity Intrinsic Rewards Goal acceptance Source: Reprinted by permission of the publisher, from Organizational Dynamics, Autumn/1979, copyright © 1979, copyright © 1979 by American Management Association, New York. All rights reserved. ( Figure 16.6 Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

27 Reinforcement Perspectives on Motivation
Reinforcement Theory The role of rewards as they cause behavior to change or remain the same over time. Assumes that: Behavior that results in rewarding consequences is likely to be repeated, whereas behavior that results in punishing consequences is less likely to be repeated. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

28 Reinforcement Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)
Kinds of Reinforcement in Organizations Positive reinforcement Strengthens behavior with rewards or positive outcomes after a desired behavior is performed. Avoidance Strengthens behavior by avoiding unpleasant consequences that would result if the behavior is not performed. Punishment Weakens undesired behavior by using negative outcomes or unpleasant consequences when the behavior is performed. Extinction Weakens undesired behavior by simply ignoring or not reinforcing that behavior. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

29 Reinforcement Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)
Providing Reinforcement in Organizations Reinforcement schedules Fixed interval schedule—reinforcement applied at fixed time intervals, regardless of behavior. Variable interval—reinforcement applied at variable time intervals. Fixed ratio —reinforcement applied after a fixed number of behaviors, regardless of time. Variable Ratio—reinforcement applied after a variable number of behaviors, regardless of time. Behavior modification (OB mod) A method for applying the basic elements of reinforcement theory in an organizational setting. Specific behaviors are tied to specific forms of reinforcement. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

30 Popular Motivational Strategies
Empowerment and Participation Empowerment The process of enabling workers to set their own work goals, make decisions, and solve problems within their sphere of influence. Participation The process of giving employees a voice in making decisions about their work. Areas of Participation for Employees Making decisions about their jobs. Decisions about administrative matters (e.g., work schedules). Participating in decision making about broader issues of product quality. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

31 Popular Motivational Strategies (cont’d)
Techniques and Issues in Empowerment Using work teams Collections of employees empowered to plan, organize, direct, and control their work. Changing the overall method of organizing the firm by becoming more decentralized. Conditions necessary for empowerment: Organization must be sincere about spreading power to lower levels. Organization must be committed to empowering workers. Organization must be systematic and patient in its efforts to empower workers. Organization must be prepared to increase its commitment to training. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

32 Popular Motivational Strategies (cont’d)
New Forms of Working Arrangements Variable Work Schedules Compressed work schedule—Working a full forty-hour week in less than five days. Flexible work schedules (flextime)—Allowing employees to select, within broad parameters, the hours they will work. Job sharing—When two part-time employees share one full-time job. Telecommuting—Allowing employees to spend part of their time working off-site, usually at home, by using , the Internet, and other forms of information technology. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

33 Using Reward Systems to Motivate Performance
The formal and informal mechanisms by which employee performance is defined, evaluated, and rewarded. Effects of Organizational Rewards Effect of Rewards on Attitudes Satisfaction is influenced by how much is received and how much the person thinks should have been received. Satisfaction is affected by comparison with others. The rewards of others are often misperceived. Overall job satisfaction is affected by employee satisfaction with intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

34 Using Reward Systems to Motivate Performance (cont’d)
Effects of Organizational Rewards (cont’d) Effect of Rewards on Behaviors Extrinsic rewards affect employee satisfaction and reduce turnover. Rewards influence patterns of attendance and absenteeism. Employees tend to work harder for rewards based on performance. Effect of Rewards on Motivation Employees will work harder when performance will be measured. Employees will work harder if performance is closely followed by rewards. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

35 Using Reward Systems to Motivate Performance (cont’d)
Designing Effective Reward (cont’d) Reward system must meet an individual’s needs. Rewards should compare favorably with other organizations. Distribution of rewards must be perceived to be equitable. Reward system must recognize different needs. New Approaches Merit system A reward system whereby people get different pay raises at the end of the year depending on their overall job performance. Incentive system A reward system whereby people get different pay amounts at each pay period in proportion to what they do. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.