Perspektif Hukum Internasional atas Hak Asasi Manusia (HAM)

Perspektif Hukum Internasional atas Hak Asasi Manusia (HAM)
Hikmahanto Juwana SH (UI), LL.M (Keio University, Jepang), Ph.D (University of Nottingham, Inggris) Guru Besar Hukum Internasional Fakultas Hukum UI Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Mengapa Hukum Internasional Peduli terhadap HAM?
Banyak alasan mengapa hukum internasional mengatur HAM HAM bukanlah masalah eksklusif suatu negara Sifat hukum internasional yang tidak terbatas pada satu negara Pelanggaran suatu pemerintah terhadap warga negaranya menjadi concern masyarakat internasional Menjadikan perang antar negara lebih beradab Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)
Ketentuan HAM diatur dalam instrumen internasional yang dikenal dalam masyarakat internasional Deklarasi negara-negara Perjanjian internasional Kebiasaan hukum internasional Resolusi Organisasi Internasional Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

INSTRUMEN INTERNASIONAL GUNA MENJUNJUNG HAM
Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Pembicaraan HAM dalam Kerangka Hukum Internasional
HAM sebenarnya sudah dibicarakan sejak lama dalam hukum internasional Dalam perang misalnya, pemenang perang tidak dapat bertindak sesuka hati terhadap pihak yang kalah Perang harus dilakukan dengan memperhatikan aturan-aturan yang melindungi manusia

Hanya saja pengaturan HAM dalam kerangka hukum internasional lebih bagi bangsa-bangsa yang memiliki peradaban tertentu Bila peradaban suatu bangsa lebih rendah daripada peradaban bangsa lain maka HAM tidak diberlakukan TIdak heran penjajahan dan perbudakan terjadi oleh bangsa Eropa terhadap bangsa non-Eropa

Pergeseran Paradigma I
Pada tahun 1940-an dengan maraknya sejumlah bangsa yang dijajah memerdekakan diri, paradigma HAM mulai berubah Kesadaran bangsa terjajah terhadap HAM semakin tinggi yang membuahkan kemerdekaan bagi negara baru Kemerdekaan ini kebanyakan adalah kemerdekaan oleh bangsa non-Eropa dari bangsa Eropa

Kemerdekaan sebagai hak asasi muncul dalam berbagai terminologi hukum internasional, seperti right to self determination, right to govern dan lain-lain Pada tahun 1948, Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa mendeklarasikan Universal Declaration of Human Rights (10 Desember) Deklarasi berisi hak-hak dasar dari manusia tanpa membedakan warna kulit, asal usul, agama, etnis dan lain sebagainya

Pergeseran Paradigma II
HAM dalam kerangka hukum internasional bergeser menjadi sarana Negara yang telah mapan untuk mengawasi, memantau dan memastikan agar Pemerintah Negara Berkembang tidak melakukan pelanggaran HAM Ini karena ada fenomena dimana pemerintahan Negara Berkembang mudah melakukan pelanggaran HAM terhadap rakyatnya Berbagai instrumen internasional dirancang dan dibuat dengan harapan Negara Berkembang turut serta dalam instrumen tersebut

Instrumen ini antara lain adalah:
ILO Conventions Convention concerning Abolition of Forced Labor Convention concerning Minimum Age for Admission to Employment Convention concerning Discrimination in Respect of Employment and Occupation Convention concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labor Conventions on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination Convention on the Rights of Child Convention against Torture and Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment

Bila perjanjian internasional bidang HAM diikuti oleh Negara Berkembang maka ada kewajiban bagi Negara tersebut untuk melakukan transformasi terhadap aturan-aturan yang ada dalam perjanjian internasional ke dalam hukum nasional Namun, sebagaimana dialami juga oleh Indonesia, berbagai masalah muncul

Permasalahan antara lain:
Perjanjian internasional setelah diratifikasi tidak ditindaklanjuti Peraturan perundang-undangan yang bertentangan tidak diamandemen Ketentuan yang belum diatur tidak mendapat pengaturan Implementasi tidak terjadi karena berbagai kendala, seperti tidak memadainya infrastruktur pendukung hukum

Pergeseran Paradigma III
HAM dalam kerangka Hukum Internasional digunakan sebagai alat politik oleh negara-negara tertentu yang memiliki kepentingan Sebagai instrumen politik, HAM dijadikan pengganti alat kolonial Masalah perdagangan dikaitkan dengan HAM Masalah Keamanan dikaitkan dengan HAM Masalah Ekonomi dan Politik juga dikaitkan dengan HAM

Perlu kewaspadaan bila HAM dijadikan instrumen politik oleh Negara
DIsini yang diperlukan bukan semangat anti-HAM tetapi penggunaan AKAL

Katagorisasi Instrumen Internasional
Bila diidentifikasi, telah banyak instrumen internasional yang mengatur HAM Berbagai instrumen internasional ini dapat dilakukan katagori yang pada prinsipnya meneguhkan HAM dari manusia, melindungi mereka yang lemah, seperti kaum perempuan, anak, tahanan dan mereka yang sedang menghadapi proses hukum, kelompok minoritas dan buruh Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

International Bill of Human Rights
Universal Declaration of Human Rights International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, aiming at the abolition of the death penalty Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Human Rights Defenders
Declaration on the Right and Responsibility of Individuals, Groups and Organs of Society to Promote and Protect Universally Recognized Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Right of self-determination
Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples General Assembly resolution 1803 (XVII) of 14 December 1962, "Permanent sovereignty over natural resources" Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Prevention of discrimination
United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

International Convention against Apartheid in Sports Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention Convention against Discrimination in Education Protocol Instituting a Conciliation and Good Offices Commission to be responsible for seeking a settlement of any disputes which may arise between States Parties to the Convention against Discrimination in Education Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Equal Remuneration Convention Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination based on Religion or Belief Declaration on Fundamental Principles concerning the Contribution to the Mass Media to Strengthening Peace and International Understanding, to the Promotion of Human Rights and to Countering Racialism, Apartheid and Incitement to War Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Rights of Women Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Convention on the Political Rights of Women Declaration on the Protection of Women and Children in Emergency and Armed Conflict Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Rights of the Child Declaration on the Rights of the Child Convention on the Rights of the Child Optional protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the involvement of children in armed conflict Optional protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Declaration on Social and Legal Principles relating to the Protection and Welfare of Children, with Special Reference to Foster Placement and Adoption Nationally and Internationally Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Slavery, Servitude, Forced Labour and similar institutions and practices Slavery Convention Protocol amending the Slavery Convention Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade,and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery Forced Labour Convention Abolition of Forced Labour Convention Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Human Rights in the Administration of Justice
Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners Basic Principles for the Treatment of Prisoners Body of Principles for the Protection of All Persons under Any Form of Detention or Imprisonment United Nations Rules for the Protection of Juveniles Deprived of the Liberty Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from Being Subjected to Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture and Ohter Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Principles on the Effective Investigation and Documentation of Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment Principles of Medical Ethics relevant to the Role of Health Personnel,particularly Physicians, in the Protection of Prisoners and Detainees against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment Safeguards guaranteeing protection of the rights of those facing the death penalty Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement Officials Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms by Law Enforcement Officials Basic Principles on the Role of Lawyers Guidelines on the Role of Prosecutors United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for Non-custodial Measures (The Tokyo Rules) United Nations Guidelines for the Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency (The Riyadh Guidelines) Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile Justice ("The Beijing Rules") Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power Basic Principles on the Independence of the Judiciary Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearances Principles on the Effective Prevention and Investigation of Extra-legal, Arbitrary and Summary Executions Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Freedom of Association
Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise Convention Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention Workers' Representatives Convention Labour Relations (Public Service) Convention Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Employment Employment Policy Convention Convention (No. 154) concerning the Promotion of Collective Bargaining Convention (No. 168) concerning Employment Promotion and Protection against Unemployment Convention (No. 169) concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Marriage, Family and Youth
Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages Recommendation on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages Declaration on the Promotion among Youth of the Ideals of Peace, Mutual Respect and Understanding between Peoples Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Social welfare, progress and development
Declaration on Social Progress and Development Declaration on the Rights of Mentally Retarded Persons Principles for the protection of persons with mental illness and the improvement of mental health care Universal Declaration on the Eradication of Hunger and Malnutrition Declaration on the Use of Scientific and Technological Progress in the Interests of Peace and for the Benefit of Mankind Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Guidelines for the Regulation of Computerized Personal Data Files Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons Declaration on the Right of Peoples to Peace Declaration on the Right to Development International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights (UNESCO) Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Right to enjoy culture, international cultural development and co-operation Declaration of the Principles of International Cultural Co-operation Recommendation concerning Education for International Understanding, Co-operation and Peace and Education relating to Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Nationality, Statelessness, Asylum and Refugees
Convention on the Nationality of Married Women Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons Convention relating to the Status of Refugees Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees Statute of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Declaration on Territorial Asylum Declaration on the Human Rights of Individuals Who are not Nationals of the Country in which They Live Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Transformasi Berbagai instrumen internasional guna menjunjung HAM bila hendak diberlakukan oleh Negara secara nasional maka harus ditransformasikan ke dalam hukum nasional Transformasi bisa dilakukan dengan dua cara: Ikut sebagai peserta Perjanjian melalui proses ratifikasi Mengadopsi ketentuan-ketentuan dalam instrumen internasional ke dalam hukum nasional Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Transformasi menjadi wajib dilaksanakan bila perjanjian internasional guna menjunjung HAM diikuti oleh suatu negara melalui proses ratifikasi Pasca ratifikasi harus diikuti dengan tindakan Pemerintah suatu Negara untuk mengamandemen hukum nasional yang bertentangan dengan perjanjian internasional, bahkan mengintrodusir peaturan perundang-undangan yang belum ada Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Sementara tranformasi berupa pengadopsian ketentuan dalam instrumen internasional adalah tindakan Pemerintah untuk mengambil ketentuan dalam instrumen internasional secara sukarela ke dalam hukum nasional Dalam proses adopsi tidak ada keharusan Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Tujuan Pembentukan Instrumen Internasional
Perlu disadari tujuan dibentuknya instrumen internasional guna menjunjung HAM tidak semata-mata untuk tujuan mulia agar harkat martabat manusia di muka bumi dihormati, tetapi juga kerap digunakan untuk tujuan politik Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Tujuan Politik Tujuan politik dilakukan untuk dua hal: Memaksa suatu negara untuk mau menghormati HAM bagi warga negaranya Ada kepentingan dari pihak yang memaksa Negara Maju kerap memaksa Negara Berkembang untuk mau menghormati HAM karena di Negara Berkembang kerap terjadi pelanggaran HAM terhadap warganya Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Negara Maju tidak jarang memaksa Negara Berkembang untuk tunduk pada instrumen internasional HAM karena memiliki agenda tersembunyi (hidden agenda) Bahkan Negara Maju kerap menerapkan standar ganda pemberlakuan instrumen internasional bila kepentingannya terganggu Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

PRODUK HUKUM INTERNASIONAL BAGI PERLINDUNGAN HAM DALAM KONFLIK BERSENJATA Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Berbagai kebiasaan hukum internasional dan perjanjian internasional telah lama ada untuk mengatur konflik bersenjata sehingga konflik tidak melanggar harkat martabat manusia Produk hukum yang ada dapat dibedakan dalam dua katagori: Pelaku yang melakukan tindakan diluar batas kemanusiaan terhadap orang-orang yang tidak terlibat dalam konflik Aturan yang berlaku bagi pihak-pihak yang terlibat dalam konflik (ius in bello) Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity, including Genocide
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity Principles of international co-operation in the detection, arrest, extradition and punishment of persons guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Humanitarian law Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I) Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts (Protocol II) Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

Berbeda dengan instrumen internasional untuk menjunjung HAM yang substansi ketentuannya ditujukan pada Negara, produk hukum internasional bagi perlindungan HAM dalam konflik bersenjata lebih ditujukan pada individu Individu dapat dipersalahkan melakukan kejahatan internasional, disini muncul konsep individu sebagai subyek hukum internasional Kejahatan internasional yang dikenal dalam Statuta Roma dalam UU No. 26/2000 disebut sebagai “Pelanggara HAM Berat” Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)

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