Dasar-dasar Manajemen PENGARAHAN (LEADING) Dasar-dasar Manajemen

Pengarahan “proses menuntun kegiatan anggota organisasi ke arah yang tepat (untuk mencapai visi, misi dan tujuan perusahaan)”Puspopranoto, 2006 Meliputi kegiatan untuk menyalurkan perilaku anggota organisasi dalam aktivitas tertentu berdasarkan proses operasi standar, pedoman dan buku panduan

Pengarahan (Leading) Kegiatan memberi pengarahan (directing), memengaruhi orang lain (influencing), dan memotivasi orang lain untuk bekerja (motivating)

Pengarahan Proses pembimbingan, pemberian petunjuk, dan instruksi kepada bawahan agar mereka bekerja sesuai dengan rencana yang telah ditetapkan Pengarahan dapat menentukan atau melarang jenis perilaku tertentu directing

PENGARAHAN Membuat/ mengusahakan para karyawan melakukan apa yang diinginkan & harus mereka lakukan. Melibatkan kualitas, gaya & kekuasaan pemimpin & kegiatan-kegiatan kepemimpinan (MOTIVASI, KOMUNIKASI) directing

Proses Manajemen Peng- arahan Pengen- dalian Peng- Planning organisasian Planning Pengen- dalian Peng- arahan

Tujuan Pengarahan (Siswanto, 2010) Menjamin kontinuitas perencanaan Membudayakan prosedur standar Menghindarkan kemangkiran yang tak berarti Membina disiplin kerja Membina motivasi yang terarah directing

Butuh pemimpin yang……….. Komunikatif Memberi nasehat/petunjuk Kreatif Inisiatif Stimulatif directing

Kepemimpinan Kepemimpinan harus melibatkan orang lain atau bawahan Manajer harus mampu memengaruhi anggota organisasinya dengan berbagai sifat kepemimpinannya Manajer harus paham akan dirinya sendiri, bawahan, kondisi dan lingkungan kerja, serta teknik komunikasi yang mampu memberikan pengaruh sehingga bawahan mampu dan mau bekerja sama untuk mencapai tujuan

Kepemimpinan adalah kemampuan untuk memengaruhi bawahan secara sukarela untuk mencapai tujuan organisasi Manajer dan leader tidak dapat diartikan selalu sama

Individu dalam organisasi: Perbedaan FISIK dan MENTAL Tugas manager : menyelaraskan tujuan perusahaan dan individu MOTIVASI

Kemampuan manajer untuk memotivasi, mempengaruhi, mengarahkan & berkomunikasi Menentukan efektivitas manajer

Manager Leader Harus mampu menghadapi kompleksitas dengan cara membuat perencanaan (menjabarkan apa yang perlu dikerjakan) mencari orang-orang untuk mengerjakan tugas yang sudah direncanakan dan memastikan bahwa orang-orang tersebut dapat mengerjakan dan menyelesaikan tugas dengan baik dan sesuai waktu yang ditetapkan (pengawasan dan pemecahan masalah) Harus dapat menghadapi perubahan Harus mampu menciptakan arahan tentang apa yang harus dikerjakan, mencari orang-orang untuk melakukan tugas dan berkomunikasi dengan mereka tentang pekerjaan yang akan dilakukan dan membuat koalisi dengan orang-orang tersebut, serta memotivasi karyawan yang melakukan pekerjaan tersebut sehingga tujuan dapat tercapai.

(Doing the things right ) (Doing the right things ) Management vs Leadership Management Leadership Administrasi Pelihara Sistem / Struktur Jangka Pendek Bagaimana ? Mengikuti aturan Kendali Inovasi Pengembangan SDM Jangka Panjang Apa / Kenapa ? Komitmen Pemberdayaan (Doing the things right ) Melakukan hal-hal yang dibenarkan - Mengikuti peraturan yang berlaku (rule driven) (Doing the right things ) Melakukan hal yang benar - Mengikuti misi yang diinginkan (mission driven)

Sifat dan keterampilan kepemimpinan yang efektif Dapat menyesuaikan diri Waspada terhadap lingkungan sosial Ambisius dan berorientasi pada prestasi Asertif Kooperatif Dapat diandalkan Dominan Energetik Gigih Percaya diri Toleran atas tekanan Kesediaan untuk bertanggung jawab Kepintaran (intelektual) Kecakapan konseptual Kreativitas Diplomatis dan bijaksana Lancar berbicara Pengetahuan tentang tugas kelompok Kecakapan organisasi Persuasif Kecapakan sosial

Tipe kepemimpinan dalam organisasi (menurut GR Terry dalam Siswanto, 2010) Authoritarian Leadership Democrative Leadership Laissez Faire Leadership Paternalistik Leadership Indigenous Leadership

Leadership Behaviors or Styles Autocratic style of leadership A leader who centralizes authority, dictates work methods, makes unilateral decisions, and limits employee participation. Democratic style of leadership A leader who involves employees in decision making, delegates authority, encourages participation in deciding work methods and goals, and uses feedback to coach employees. A democratic-consultative leader seeks input and hears the concerns and issues of employees but makes the final decision him or herself. A democratic-participative leader often allows employees to have a say in what’s decided. Copyright © 2004 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

Leadership Behaviors or Styles (cont’d) Laissez-faire style of leadership A leader who gives employees complete freedom to make decisions and to decide on work methods Conclusions about leadership styles The laissez-faire leadership style is ineffective. Quantity of work is equal under authoritarian and democratic leadership styles Quality of work and satisfaction is higher under democratic leadership. Copyright © 2004 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

Paternalistik Tipe pemimpin paternalistik hanya terdapat di lingkungan masyarakat yang bersifat tradisional, umumnya dimasyarakat agraris. Salah satu ciri utama masuarakat tradisional ialah rasa hormat yang tinggi yang ditujukan oleh para anggiota masyarakat kepada orang tua atau seseorang yang dituakan. Pemimpin seperti ini kebapakan, sebagai tauladan atau panutan masyarakat. Biasanya tiokoh-toko adat, para ulama dan guru. Pemimpin ini sangat mengembangkan sikap kebersamaan. Indigenous Biasanya muncul dari kelompok informal yang didapatkan dari pelatihan meskipun tidak langsung. Dengan adanya sistem persaingan dapat menimbulkan perbedaan pendapat yang seru dari kelompok yang bersangkutan. Bisasayna akan muncul pemimpin yang mempunyai kelemahan diantara mereka yang ada dalam kelompok tersebut. Pada situasi ini peran bakat sangat menonjol sebagai dampak pembawaan sejak lahir mungkin disebabkan faktor keturunan

Continuum of Leader Behavior Source: Adapted and reprinted by permission of the Harvard Business Review. An Exhibit from “How to Choose a Leadership Pattern” by R. Tannenbaum and W. Schmidt, May-June 1973. Copyright © 1973 by the President and Fellows and Harvard College; all rights reserved. EXHIBIT 11.2 Copyright © 2004 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

Different Country has Different Style

Perubahan Gaya Manajemen Dalam 10 tahun per Negara

Contemporary Views on Leadership Transactional Leadership Leaders who guide or motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements. Transformational Leadership Leaders who inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests for the good of the organization by clarifying role and task requirements. Leaders who also are capable of having a profound and extraordinary effect on their followers. © 2007 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

Contemporary Views…(cont’d) Charismatic Leadership An enthusiastic, self-confident leader whose personality and actions influence people to behave in certain ways. Characteristics of charismatic leaders: Have a vision. Are able to articulate the vision. Are willing to take risks to achieve the vision. Are sensitive to the environment and follower needs. Exhibit behaviors that are out of the ordinary. © 2007 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

Contemporary Views…(cont’d) Visionary Leadership A leader who creates and articulates a realistic, credible, and attractive vision of the future that improves upon the present situation. Visionary leaders have the ability to: Explain the vision to others. Express the vision not just verbally but through behavior. Extend or apply the vision to different leadership contexts. © 2007 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

Contemporary Views…(cont’d) Team Leadership Characteristics Having patience to share information Being able to trust others and to give up authority Understanding when to intervene Team Leader’s Job Managing the team’s external boundary Facilitating the team process Coaching, facilitating, handling disciplinary problems, reviewing team and individual performance, training, and communication © 2007 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

Components of Motivation Organizational Goals Effort Needs Copyright © 2004 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory McGregor’ s Theory X and Theory Y Theories of Employee Motivation Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory McGregor’ s Theory X and Theory Y Theory Z Variations on Theory Z Equity Theory Expectanc y Theory 9-28

Historical Perspectives on Employee Motivation Classical Theory of Motivation Theory suggesting that money is the sole motivator for workers Early 20th century Frederick W. Taylor and Frank & Lillian Gilbreth Analyzed how workers perform specific work tasks in an effort to improve the employees’ productivity Led to the application of scientific principles to management 9-29

Classical Theory of Motivation To improve productivity managers should: Break down each job into its component tasks (specialization) Determine the best way to perform each task Specify the output to be achieved by a worker performing the task Incentives motivate employees to be more productive Link workers’ pay directly to their output 9-30

Historical Perspectives on Employee Motivation The Hawthorne Studies 1924-1932 at the Hawthorne Works Plant Marks beginning of concern for human relations in the workplace Elton Mayo: Postulated that physical conditions in workplace stimulate productivity Productivity increased regardless of the physical conditions (the Hawthorne effect) Findings show that social and psychological factors could significantly affect productivity and morale 9-31

Hawthorne Studies Working conditions are important However, the Hawthorne studies, which were carried out at the electric company shown here beginning in the 1920s, found that the workers became more productive because of the attention they received— regardless of their working conditions. 9-32

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Source: Motivation and Personality, 2nd ed., by A. H. Maslow, 1970. Reprinted by permission of Prentice Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. EXHIBIT 10.2 Copyright © 2004 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Physiological Needs The most basic human needs to be satisfied—water, food, shelter, and clothing Security Needs The need to protect oneself from physical and economic harm Social Needs The need for love, companionship, and friendship—the desire for acceptance by others Esteem Needs The need for respect—both self-respect and respect from others Self-Actualization Needs The need to be the best one can be; at the top of Maslow’s hierarchy 9-34

Early Theories Of Motivation (cont’d) Motivation-Hygiene theory (Herzberg) intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction and extrinsic factors are related to job dissatisfaction Hygiene factors Factors, such as working conditions and salary, that, when adequate, may eliminate job dissatisfaction but do not necessarily increase job satisfaction Motivators Factors, such as recognition and growth, that increase job satisfaction Copyright © 2004 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory EXHIBIT 10.4 Copyright © 2004 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

Two-Factor Theory of Motivation Figure 8.4 illustrates the two-factor theory. Note that motivation factors lie along a continuum from satisfaction to no satisfaction. Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education

Contrasting Views of Satisfaction-Dissatisfaction EXHIBIT 10.5 Copyright © 2004 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y McGregor’s traditional view of management whereby it is assumed that workers generally dislike work and must be forced to do their jobs The average person naturally dislikes work and will avoid it when possible Most workers must be coerced, controlled, directed, or threatened with punishment to get them to work toward the achievement of organizational objectives The average worker prefers to be directed and to avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition, and wants security 9-39

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y Theory X style of management focuses on physiological and security needs and virtually ignores the higher needs discussed by Maslow Theory Y McGregor’s humanistic view of management whereby it is assumed that workers like to work and that under proper conditions employees will seek out responsibility in an attempt to satisfy their social, esteem, and self-actualization needs Theory Y assumes: The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest 9-40

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y Theory Y assumptions (continued): People will exercise self-direction and self-control to achieve objectives to which they are committed People will commit to objectives when they realize that the achievements of those goals will bring them personal reward The average person will accept and seek responsibility Imagination, ingenuity, and creativity can help solve organizational problems, but most organizations do not make adequate use of these characteristics in their employees Organizations today do not make full use of workers’ intellectual potential 9-41

Theory Z Theory Z A management philosophy that stresses employee participation in all aspects of company decision making Incorporates many elements associated with the Japanese approach to management (trust and intimacy) but Japanese ideas have been adapted for use in the U.S. Results in employees feeling organizational ownership Research has found that such feelings of ownership may produce positive attitudinal and behavioral effects for employees 9-42

Equity Theory Equity is a subjective notion An assumption that how much people are willing to contribute to an organization depends on their assessment of the fairness, or equity, of the rewards they will receive in exchange Equity is a subjective notion Equity theory might explain why many consumers are upset about CEO compensation Corporations have now begun to tie CEO compensation with company performance Feelings of inequity may underlie some unethical or illegal behavior in business 9-43

Equity Theory Relationships EMPLOYEE’S ASSESSMENT Inequity (underrewarded) Equity Inequity (overrewarded) *Person A is the employee, and Person B is a relevant other or referent. EXHIBIT 10.6 Copyright © 2004 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

Equity Theory When employees perceive an inequity they may: Distort either their own or others’ inputs or outcomes. Behave so as to induce others to change their inputs or outcomes. Behave so as to change their own inputs or outcomes. Choose a different comparison referent. Quit their job. Copyright © 2004 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

Expectancy theory (Vroom) A comprehensive theory of motivation that an individual tends to act in a certain way, in the expectation that the act will be followed by given outcome, and according to the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. The extent to which individuals are motivated to perform to get a reward of value to them is based on their belief that their performance will result in the reward they want. Copyright © 2004 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

Expectancy Relationships (Linkages) Effort–performance The perceived probability that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance Performance–reward The belief that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome Attractiveness The importance placed on the potential outcome or reward that can be achieved on the job. Copyright © 2004 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.