LABOR MARKET DISCRIMINATION Labor Economics Series LABOR MARKET DISCRIMINATION

Tokoh Pejuang Wanita Indonesia Raden Adjeng Kartini 21 April 1879 – 17 September 1904

Pemikiran Raden Adjeng Kartini Adanya keinginan untuk memperbaiki kondisi kaum wanita yang disebabkan kungkungan adat, antara lain : Dunia wanita hanya sebatas tembok rumah. Tidak bebas mendapatkan akses pendidikan. Dipingit dan dinikahkan dengan pria yang tidak dikenal.

Fakta di Indonesia

Penduduk yang Bekerja (2007)

Penduduk yang Bekerja (2007) Jenis Pekerjaan Utama JENIS KELAMIN Jumlah Pria Wanita Tenaga Profesional 1.945.782 1.857.339 3.803.121 Kepemimpinan 310.089 57.295 367.384 Tata Usaha 2.608.947 1.383.556 3.992.503 TU Penjualan 8.590.673 8.046.116 16.636.789 TU Jasa 3.351.697 2.992.762 6.344.459 TU Pertanian 26.479.175 15.753.497 42.232.672 Produksi 18.446.465 5.325.368 23.771.833 Lainnya 418.454 15.926 434.380 62.151.282 35.431.859 97.583.141

Rata-rata Upah (2006)

Rata-rata Upah (2006) LAPANGAN PEKERJAAN PRIA WANITA SEKTOR 1 Pertanian, Kehutanan, Perburuan, Perikanan (Agriculture,Forestry,Hunting,Fishery) 438.149 234.586 2 Pertambangan, Penggalian (Mining and Quarrying) 1.541.241 771.415 3 Industri Pengolahan (Manufacturing Industries) 826.257 583.768 4 Listrik, gas dan air (Electricity, Gaz and Water) 1.176.160 1.338.737 5 Bangunan (Construction) 734.070 1.073.573 6 Perdagangan Besar, Rumah Makan & Hotel (Wholesale Trade,Restaurant & Hotel) 806.110 621.248 7 Angkutan, Pergudangan dan Komunikasi (Transportation,Storage & Communication) 934.761 944.419 8 Keuangan, Asuransi,Jasa Perusahaan (Financing,Insurance,Business Services) 1.422.252 1.461.926 9 Jasa Kemasyarakatan (Public Services) 1.126.559 789.557 Rata-rata 827.101 612.131

Penduduk yang Bekerja Berdasarkan Jam Kerja Tahun 2007

Konsep Diskriminasi

Konsep Diskriminasi George Borjas : Differences in EARNINGS and EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES among equally skilled workers employed in the same job simply because of the worker’s race, gender, national origin, sexual orientation, or other seemingly irrelevant characteristics.

Konsep Diskriminasi Discrimination means treating people differently and less favourably because of characteristics that are not related to their merit or the requirements of the job. These include race, colour, sex, religion, political opinion, national extraction and social origin.

The Discrimination Coefficient

The Discrimination Coefficient Lauched for the first time by Gary S. Becker The Economics of Discrimination (1957)

The Discrimination Coefficient Basic Concept : Taste Discrimination Assumption  Two types of workers : White workers : wage  wW Black workers : wage  wB

The Discrimination Coefficient If the employer is prejudiced againts black, employer gets disutility from hiring black workers. Disutility : employer will act as if costs for black worker wB (1 + d), where d is positive number and is called : The Discrimination Coefficient

The Discrimination Coefficient Suppose that wB = $10, and that d =0,5 ; the employer will then act as if hiring a black worker costs $ 15 The greater the prejudiced, the greater is the disutility from hiring black workers, and the greater is the discrimination coefficient d.

The Discrimination Coefficient If these black employers prefer to hire black workers, they will act as if hiring a black worker is cheaper than it actually is. Nepotism Coefficient  wB (1 – n )

Labor Market Discrimination Analysis

Employer Discrimination

Skill and Labor Market Outcomes (2001) WHITE BLACK HISPANIC Male Female Highschool Graduate or more (Percent) 84.3 85.2 78.5 78.9 56.1 57.9 Bachelor’s degree or more (Percent) 29.1 25.4 16.4 17.5 11.0 11.2 Labor Force Participation Rate (Percent) 79.9 59.9 72.1 65.2 83.8 59.3 Unemployment Rate (Percent) 4.7 3.6 8.0 7.0 5.2 6.6 Annual Earnings (in $1,000) 49.8 29.6 33.5 26.0 30.8 22.3 Annual Earnings (Full Time) 55.4 37.1 38.5 34.3 28.0

Fact : White Wage > Black Wage

Employer Discrimination Assumption : White Workers and Black Workers are Perfect Subtitutes in Production. Firms’s output depends on the total number of workers hired, regardless of their race  have the same Marginal Product of Labor ( MPE )

Employer Discrimination Production function: q = f ( EW + EB ) q  firm’s output EW  number of white workers hired EB  number of black workers hired

Employment in a non Discriminatory Firm

Employment in a non Discriminatory Firm Both groups of workers have the same Value of Marginal Product, a non discriminatory firms will hire whichever group is Cheaper Suppose that wW > wB , a firms that doesn’t discriminate will hire black workers up to the point where wB = VMPE 

The Employment Decision of a Firm That Does Not Discriminate ? Black workers wage is less than white wage VMPE Dollar wB = VMPE How many worker will be hired..?? Employment

Employment in a Discriminatory Firm

Employment in a Discriminatory Firm The employer act as if black wage is not wB , but instead equal to wB (1 + d). Where d is discrimination coefficient. The employer’s hiring decision based on a comparison wW and wB (1 + d) Hire only blacks if wB (1 + d) < wW Hire only white if wB (1 + d) > wW

Employment in a Discriminatory Firm As long as black and white workers are perfect subtitutes, firms have a segregated workforce. Employer’s who have little prejudice and hence have small discrimination coefficient, will hire only BLACKS (called “Black Firm”). Employer’s who are very prejudice and have very large discrimination coefficient, will hire only WHITES (called “White Firm”).

Employment in a Discriminatory Firm WHITE FIRM The white firm hires workers up to the point where : wW = VMPE Assumption : wW > WB The white firm is paying an excessively high price for its workers and hires relatively few workers ( )

The Employment Decision of a Prejudiced Firm Dollar White Firm VMPE Employment

Employment in a Discriminatory Firm BLACK FIRM Non discriminatory firms : wB = VMPE  If discrimination coefficient d0 : Price of Black Labor  wB ( 1 + d0 ) Amount of Labor hired : wB ( 1 + d0 ) = VMPE

Employment in a Discriminatory Firm BLACK FIRM The number of black workers hired, therefore, is smaller for firms that have larger discrimination coefficient.

The Employment Decision of a Prejudiced Firm Dollar Discrimination Coefficient Black Firm VMPE Employment

Discrimination and Profits

Discrimination and Profits Firms that discriminate lose on two counts : The prejudiced employer could have hired the same number of black worker at lower wage. Because black and white workers are perfect subtitutes. Discriminatory black firms are hiring too few workers ( or )  they are giving up profits in order to minimize contact with black workers.

Profit and Discrimination Coefficient Dollar max Max Profit w Black Firm White Firm Discrimination Coefficient dw

Discrimination and Profits The Most Profitable Firm  Zero Discrimination

Labor Marker Equilibrium

Discrimination and Profits Firm dengan Discrimination Coefficient : Rendah  cenderung Black Firm Tinggi  cenderung White Firm Asumsi : Supply Black Worker Perfectly Inelastic  sejumlah N Black person tidak terpengaruh tingkat upah.

Labor Market Equilibrium Black-White Wage Ratio S D’ 1 R D N Black Employment

Employee Discrimination

Employee Discrimination Diskriminasi dilakukan oleh “Fellow Worker” Misal : White worker yang bekerja pada Black Firm dengan upah wW akan merasa mendapat upah wW (1- d). Tidak berpengaruh terhadap “Profitability of Firms” karena white worker dan black worker adalah perfect subtitutes sehingga firm membayar jumlah upah yang sama.

Customer Discrimination

Customer Discrimination Dikemukakan oleh Harry J. Holzer dan Keith R. Ihlanfeldt (1998)  research di Atlanta, Boston, Detroit dan Los Angeles. Keputusan membeli tidak ditentukan oleh Actual Price ( p ) tapi oleh The Utility-Adjusted Price  p (1 + d). Employer dapat mengatur tenaga penjualan sesuai kondisi.

Customer Discrimination TYPE FIRM > 50 % BLACK CUSTOMER > 75 % WHITE CUSTOMER PERBEDAAN Customer & worker bertemu 58,0 % 9,0 % 49,0 % Customer & worker tidak bertemu 46,6 % 12,2 % 34,4 % Perbedaan - 14,6 %

Customer Discrimination and NBA Lawrence Kahn and Peter Sherer 1998) : A study of attenance records indicates that replacing a black player with an eqqually talented white player bring in about 9,000 additional fans per year. At $50 a head (a very conservative estimate of ticket prices and concession revenues), the racial switch would increase annual team revenues by roughly $450,000

Measuring Discrimination

Measuring Discrimination Asumsi : Tenaga kerja terdiri dari Male, dengan average wage Female, dengan average wage Diskriminasi : selisih average wage, yaitu :

Measuring Discrimination Pengembangan model : Schooling mempengaruhi pendapatan Earning Function : Male : Female : menyatakan pendapatan pria meningkat bila mendapatkan tambahan 1 tahun pendidikan.

Measuring Discrimination Model Regresi :

Measuring The Impact of Discrimination on the Wage Men’s Earning Function Men’s Earning Dollars Men’s Earning Women’s Earning Function Women’s Earning Measure Discrimination : Woman’s Earning Women’s Schooling Men’s Schooling Schooling

Trend in Female-Male Wage Ratio (USA 1930-1990)

Global Gender Gap 2007 INDONESIA Rank 2007 : 81 Score 2007 : 0.6550 ( 1 = equality ) Rank 2006 : 68 Score 2007 : 0.6541( 1 = equality )

Global Gender Gap 2007

Global Gender Gap 2007 INDONESIA

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