History of Medicine and Pharmacy

Filsafat adalah sekumpulan sikap dan kepercayaan terhadap kehidupan dan alam yang biasanya diterima secara tidak kritis. 2

PROSES BERFILSAFAT TERJADI MELALUI EMPAT TAHAP: LOGIS, yaitu berpikir dengan menggunakan logika (undang-undang berpikir) yaitu melalui tiga tahap; pemahaman, keputusan dan argumentasi contoh: Alam berubah-ubah (premis minor) Setiap berubah-ubah baru (premis mayor) Alam baru (simpulan) 3

3. RADIKAL, berpikir sampai pada akar masalah. 2. SISTEMATIS, yaitu berpikir melalui alur yang sistematik sehingga ditemukan adanya koheren (saling runtut), diantara satu pertanyaan dengan pertanyaan lainnya. 3. RADIKAL, berpikir sampai pada akar masalah. 4. UNIVERSAL, berpikir secara umum, bukan khusus. (Perbedaannya dg ilmu ,  berpikir secara khusus, 4

APA YANG MENYEBABKAN LAHIRNYA FILSAFAT? PERTENTANGAN ANTARA MITOS DAN LOGOS Dikalangan masyarakat Yunani dikenal adanya mitos, sebagai suatu keyakinan lama yang berkembang dengan pesat misalnya mite kosmologi yang melukiskan kejadian alam. Lama-lama mitos hilang dikalahkan oleh logos, maka logos dianggap penyebab pertama lahirnya filsafat. 5

lanjutan 2. RASA INGIN TAHU Karena mite hanya bersifat dongeng belaka, maka orang mulai berpikir rasional, untuk mencari jawaban-jawaban yang logis. Keingintahuan terhadap alam semesta, keingintahuan terhadap penciptanya dsb. 6

lanjutan 3. RASA KAGUM Menurut Plato, filsafat lahir krn adanya kekaguman manusia tentang dunia dan lingkungannya. Atas kekagumannya , para filsuf mencoba merumuskan asal mula alam semesta. Thales bapak filsafat Yunani, mengatakan alam semesta berasal dari air. 7

lanjutan Anaximandros, alam berasal dari apairon (api) Democrios, alam berasal dari atom Empedokles, alam berasal dari empat unsur; air, api, angin, tanah. 4. PERKEMBANGAN KESUSASTRAAN Faktor lain yang menyebakan lahirnya filsafat adalah kesusastraan. 8

PROBLEMATIKA FILSAFAT Secara Umum terbagi menjadi tiga; ONTOLOGI, yaitu mengkaji hakikat segala sesuatu, terbagi 2: 1. Kuantitas; - Monisme, asal alam terdiri dari satu unsur (mono=satu). Thales dari air, Anaximandros dari api, Anaximenes dari udara, Democritos dari tanah. 9

lanjutan Dualisme, yang mengatakan alam semesta terdiri dari dua unsur yaitu materi dan roh. Tokohnya Anaxagoras dan Aristolteles Pluralisme, alam semesta terdiri dari empat unsur; air, angin, api, tanah. Tokohnya Empedokles, Leukippos. 10

lanjutan 2. Kualitas Pandangan ini membicarakan bagaimana alam berproses, dalam kaitannya muncul 4 teori: - Mekanisme, yang mengatakan bahwa segala sesuatu berproses secara mekanik. - Teleologi, mengatakan bahwa segala sesuatu yang terjadi di alam raya berproses menuju suatu tujuan, yaitu Tuhan. 11

-Determinisme, kejadian di alam ini berproses melalui suatu ketentuan yang telah ditetapkan sebelumnya, baik oleh hukum alam maupun oleh Tuhan -Indeterminisme, segala kejadian di alam ini berlangsung secara bebas, tanpa kendali tertentu dari Tuhan atau kekuatannya. 12

PROBLEM FILSAFAT 2. EPISTEMOLOGI, membicarakan 2 hal; a. Hakikat pengetahuan, muncul 2 pandangan; - realisme, yaitu pengetahuan manusia riil adanya dalam kehidupan. - idealisme, yaitu hakikat ilmu pengetahuan tidak terdapat dalam dunia riil, melainkan konsep ideal atau dunia ide-ide. 13

lanjutan b. Sumber Pengetahuan, muncul 3 pandangan; rasionalisme, mengatakan bahwa sumber pengetahuan muncul dari rasio (akal) manusia. Empirisme, sumber pengetahuan adalah indera manusia. Kritisme, pengetahuan manusia bersumber dari luar diri manusia, yaitu Tuhan. 14

PROBLEM FILSAFAT 3. AXIOLOGI, terbagi menjadi 6 pandangan; Naturalisme, yang menyatakan ukuran baik buruk ialah sesuai tidaknya suatu perbuatan dengan fitrah (natura) manusia. b. Hedonisme, yang menyatakan bahwa ukuran baik buruk ialah sejauh mana suatu perbuatan mendatangkan kenikmatan (hedone) bagi manusia. 15

lanjutan c. Vitalisme, ukuran baik buruk ditentukan oleh sejauh mana suatu perbuatan dapat mendorong manusia untuk hidup lebih maju. d. Ultitarianisme, ukuran baik buruk ditentukan oleh ada tidaknya suatu perbuatan mendatangkan manfaat bagi manusia. 16

lanjutan e. Idealisme, ukuran baik buruk ditentukan oleh sesuai tidaknya sesuatu perbuatan dengan konsep ideal (rancang bangun) pikiran manusia. f. Teologis, baik buruknya suatu perbuatan ditentukan oleh sesuai tidaknya dengan ketentuan agama (teos=Tuhan, agama) 17

lanjutan Berdasarkan uraian problematika di atas kebenaran itu bersifat relatif tergantung pada latar belakang pendidikan, sosial, budaya, agama dan sebagainya. 18

Ancient Beliefs and Treatments Medicine has been practiced for thousands of years Remedies such as herbals have been used throughout history Severe illnesses caused by evil spirits Other illnesses cured by the placebo effect–patients believed so strongly in the treatment rendered that they were cured

The Medical Staff Aesculapius–Greek God of medicine His symbol–a staff with a snake wrapped around it Treatments for illnesses were based on dreams and visions of the believers Authoritarians–set forth dogmatic beliefs like gods being able to cure illnesses

Medicine in Its Infancy Plagues killed many people Microbes not known to be responsible for many diseases Prayer–most common form of treatment

Medicine in Its Infancy Hippocrates–3rd generation physician Believed life consisted of a balance of four elements linked to qualities of good health: wet, dry, hot, cold Illnesses resulted in imbalance of four humors–blood, phlegm, yellow bile, black bile

Medicine in Its Infancy Four humors were linked to the four elements: Blood = air Phlegm = water Yellow bile = fire Black bile = earth Treatment: bloodletting, laxatives

Medicine in Its Infancy Hippocrates–responsible for advancements in medicine His observations included effects of food and climate First physician to record patient’s medical illnesses Promoted rest and eating light foods

Medicine in Its Infancy Corpus Hippocratum–documentation of Hippocrates’ writings Hippocratic oath–“Doctors act only for the good of their patients and keep confidential what they learn about their patients.” Hippocrates–known as the Father of Medicine

Medicine in Its Infancy Aristotle–Greek philosopher and scientist Responsible for many advancements in biology and medicine Studied and classified various organisms Described human anatomy from observations after dissecting animals

Medicine in Its Infancy Claudius Galen–followed many of Hippocrates’ beliefs like eating a balanced diet, exercise, and good hygiene Contributed greatly to study of medicine Wrote on topics such as physiology, anatomy, pathology, diagnosis, and pharmacology

Medicine in Its Infancy Roger Bacon–philosopher and alchemist Refined and explained the importance of the experimental methods

Medicine in Its Infancy Paracelsus–Swiss physician and alchemist Believed in treating illnesses with one medicine at a time Produced many nontoxic medications Introduced Laudanum–popular tonic to deaden pain

Ancient Herbal Remedies Prevalent treatments–multiple mixtures of plants, roots, and other concoctions Belief held that digesting the type of plant resembling organ affected by the disease cured the illness

Prevalent Ancient Herbal Remedies Examples of prevalent treatments: Garlic–inflammation of bronchial tubes Liverwort plant–for liver problems Wine and pepper–stomach ailments Onions–worms Tiger fat–joint pain

Medicine in the Fourteenth Century (Th. 13…..) Belief that evil spirits caused disease Treatments through trial and error–some were effective; some caused death New scientists emerged and new methods were devised to test hypotheses, which gave way to advancements

Medicine in the Eighteenth Century ( Th 17…..) Religious leaders became very active in researching medicinal remedies to treat the sick Gregor Mendel–famous scientist and monk–found the basis of genetics and how genes are woven into heredity Known as the Father of Genetics

Medicine in America Early America–immigrants brought diseases from other parts of the world Doctors–responsible for diagnosing conditions and preparing remedies to cure patients First druggists were doctors

Medicine in America Cinchona bark (quinine)–malaria Early American remedies: Cinchona bark (quinine)–malaria Mercury–syphilis (very toxic and caused deaths) Average life expectancy–40 years Childhood diseases–no vaccines available

Medicine in America Most treatments were concoctions handed down through family tradition There were few doctors and fewer hospitals throughout the colonies Civil War–brought about a clear division between physicians and pharmacists

The Use of Opium and Alcohol Most popular tonic for medicinal use; very addictive Given as a sedative to dull the sensation of pain Civil War–used to treat painful wounds

The Use of Opium and Alcohol Households–used it for less severe problems and depression Addiction–alarming rate Absinthe–alcohol-based liquid; herb mixed with alcohol; served with water and sugar for tapeworms

Early Pharmacists Apothecaries (pharmacies)–sprung up after the Civil War Manufacturing plants were built Training took place to give medications accurately Pharmacists moved into the role of druggists

Early Pharmacists First Pharmacy School–Philadelphia College of Pharmacy and Sciences (1821) 1800s–Pharmacists compounded nearly every drug ordered by physicians Cisterns–large ornate jars used to store various herbs and ingredients

Early Pharmacists Recipe book–where remedies were contained Examples: chalk–for heartburn; rose petals–for headaches Apothecary–filled with oils, herbs, and spices