Communication Theory: An Introduction Monika Sri Yuliarti, S.Sos., M.Si.

Theory Research Science Theory and science Theory Research Science

What is theory? The word “theory” was derived from a technical term in Ancient Greek philosophy, “theoria “, which means “looking at, viewing, beholding ” atau “melihat, memandang, mengamati” (online etymology dictionary). Theory  system of thought, a way of looking (Littlejohn & Foss, 2005)  sistem pemikiran, cara memandang sesuatu Theory  a system of interconnected abstractions or ideas that organizes knowledge (Neuman, 2007)  sistem yang berisi abstraksi atau gagasan yang saling terhubung dan membentuk pengetahuan.

The importance of theory Theory is the product of human judgment & discussion (teori adalah buatan manusia yang berisi penilaian & diskusi) Different people prefer different ways of knowing (setiap orang memiliki cara pandang yang berbeda terhadap sesuatu hal) (Littlejohn & Foss, 2005)

Making communication theories Every academic community has different standards on theory development, but they follow a predictable patterns (Pola umum yang diikuti oleh para ilmuwan dalam mengembangkan teori) Curious to a topic (rasa ingin tahu terhadap topik tertentu) Investigate the topic (menginvestigasi topik tersebut) Share the investigation to others (membagi hasil investigasi) Informal  discuss with students Formal  peer review (regional/ national meeting) Publish theory in a book (publikasi teori pada buku)

Seven tradition of communication theory Robert T. Craig (1999): communication field will never be united by a single theory or a group of theories, so there are seven tradition to understand communication as a field  bidang ilmu komunikasi tidak akan bisa disatukan dengan sebuah teori atau sekelompok teori saja, jadi ada tujuh tradisi yang bisa dijadikan pedoman untuk memahami komunikasi sebagai sebuah bidang ilmu: Semiotic Phenomenological Cybernetic Sociopsychological Sociocultural Critical Rhetorical

Semiotics tradition involves a set of theories about how the signs representing objects, ideas, statements, situations, feelings, and conditions, beyond each of these things (teori tentang bagaimana tanda mewakili objek, gagasan, pernyataan, situasi, perasaan, dan kondisi). Key ideas (gagasan utama): The basic concept that unites the traditions of semiotics is the sign. Signs  stimulus designating something other than it self. (konsep utama: tanda) This concept combines the broad theories associated with language, discourse, and nonverbal actions (bahasa, wacana, komunikasi nonverbal)

Theories in semiotic traditions Symbol theory: Susanne Langer  symbolism is the central concern of philosophy, because it underlies all human knowing & understanding (simbolisme adalah hal utama dalam filsafat, karena mendasari pengetahuan & pemahaman manusia). The semiotics of media: Jean Baudrillard  signs have been developed separately from the objects they represent (tanda berkembang secara terpisah dengan objek yang diwakilinya)

Phenomenological tradition  Focus  the conscious experience of a person, where they actively interpret their experience and understand the world by engaging in it directly (pengalaman sadar seseorang) Key ideas: Knowledge is conscious process (pengetahuan adalah proses sadar). The meaning of a thing consists of the potential of the object in someone’s life. In other words, how do you make sense of things, depending on how your relationship with these things (pemahaman seseorang terhadap sesuatu hal berdasar pada pengalamannya). Language is the vehicle of meaning. We have the knowledge about the world and everything in it through the use of language to define this world (bahasa adalah kendaraan makna).

Theories in Phenomenological Tradition Reader-response theory: Stanley Fish  Text stimulates the reader actively, but the readers themselves who determine the meaning of a text, not the text it self. Self theory: Cal Rogers  individual experiences as a person constitutes phenomenal field

Cybernetic Tradition Cybernetic   complex systems which many elements interact and influence each other (adanya sistem yang kompleks dimana setiap elemen saling berhubungan) Teori komunikasi yang termasuk dalam tradisi ini adalah teori komunikasi yang berhubungan dengan sistem. Key ideas: System is a set of components that interact with each other  and form something more than just the sum of the elements that formed it (sistem terdiri dari komponen yang saling berhubungan, bukan hanya sejumlah komponen yang berkumpul). All  systems is unique and characterized by a pattern of relationships (semua sistem unik) System is also marked by a personal-regulation and control (sistem ditandai dengan aturan dan kontrol).  System is in a dynamic environment, so, it will be adapted and can be changed (sistem ada di lingkungan yang dinamis)

Theories in Cybernetic Tradition Expectancy-value theory: Martin Fishbein  attitudes are complex combination of beliefs and evaluations. (Sikap merupakan kombinasi kompleks antara kepercayaan dan evaluasi) Spiral of silence: Elizabeth Noelle-Neumann  individual who perceived that their opinion is popular, express it; oppositely, they will remain silent. (individu yang merasa bahwa opininya populer, akan menyampaikannya kepada publik; sebaliknya, mereka yang merasa opininya kurang populer akan menyimpannya dalam hati).

Sociopsychological Tradition Focus  individual behavior in social relationships, psychological variables, and individual perception. Teori komunikasi yang bisa diklasifikasikan dalam tradisi ini adalah teori komunikasi mengenai: perilaku individu dalam hubungan sosial, variabel psikologi, dan persepsi individu.

Theories in Sociopsychological Tradition Key ideas: Most communication studies in this tradition, emphasizing the process of delivering the message. Most theories in this tradition are process-oriented cognitive (awareness), especially about processing information

Theories in Sociopsychological Tradition Uses and gratification theory: Palmgreen  there is a discrepancy to the satisfaction of satisfaction sought and satisfaction obtained among the audiences Interpersonal deception theory: David Buller & Judee Burgoon  deception and its detection are part of communication process.

Sociocultural Tradition Focus more on patterns of interaction between people rather than individual characteristics. Key ideas: Reality created by language. There is a disclosure of meaning in social interaction. Identities are built through interaction in social and cultural groups.  Culture forms a context for action and interpretation in the communication situation.

Theories in Sociocultural Tradition Agenda setting theory: Donald Shaw & Maxwell McCombs  mass media have the ability to transfer the salience of items in their news agendas to the public agenda. Face negotiation theory: Stella Ting-Toomey  basis for predicting how people will accomplish facework in different cultures.

Critical Tradition Critical theory suggests that power, oppression, and privilege/ honor  is the result of a particular form of the communication process within a society. Key ideas: Message able to amplify oppression in society. Discourse and text can bring ideology,  strong power, and destroy the interest groups/ certain classes in society.

Theories in Critical Tradition Critical Theory: Jurgen Habermas  society must be understood as a mix of three major interests – work, interaction, and power. Political-economy media theory: Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky  media content is commodity to be sold in the marketplace, and the information disseminate is controlled.

Rhetorical Tradition Focus: human symbol use in persuasion among people. Modern rhetorical theory: Kenneth Burke  language as a symbolic means of inducing cooperation in beings that by nature respond to symbols