A STATE & RECOGNITION of STATE @eyr's materials

International Personality As international law has developed and expanded in scope, new entities have been admitted as “ actors” on the international scene. State were once considered as the exclusive subjects of international law “ since the law of nations is based on the common consent of individual states, and not of individual human beings, States solely and exclusively are the subject of international law.” Today they are no longer the exclusive subject of the international legal system, but “primary” subject. @eyr's materials

However, while states possess full international legal personality as an inherent attribute of their statehood, all other entities possessing personality do so only to the extent that states allow: that is, their personality is derived via states. See the case of Int. Organization. @eyr's materials

Whether International Law has authority as LAW Austin : bahwa hukum antar bangsa hanya memiliki kekuasaan memaksa secara moral; Hart : HI tidak memiliki apa yang dalam konsep Hart sbg Rule of recognition dan Secondary Rules of Change; Jadi HI tdk memiliki elemen esensial sebagai suatu sistem hukum @eyr's materials

Why States are the principal persons of International Law International law is essentially the product of relations between states; States alone may be parties to contentious cases before the International court of justice; States alone enjoy the discretion as to whether or not to espouse a claim on behalf of a national, and once a state does take up a claim the dispute is raised to the international level and becomes one between two states. @eyr's materials

WHAT IS A STATE? @eyr's materials

Masyarakat Internasional memerlukan : Negara yang kuat, yang berdaulat; setelah dunia tercabik-cabik perang sejak abad ke 15 – 18; tentu dalam interval; Tercermin dari karya karya ahli HI: Hugo de Grotius, On the Law of War and Peace ( De Jure Belli ac Pacis), Vattel “ The Law of Nation” ( Le Droits des Gens ) 1648 - Perdamaian Westphalia; 1763 - Perang 7 tahun kerajaan besar; 1815 - berakhirnya Revolusi Perancis; dan peperangan Napoleon; 1919- Treaty Versailles, 1914 -1918 – PD I lahir Liga Bangsa ; 1945 PD II melahirkan UN Charter 1945 @eyr's materials

Konsep Negara hingga dewasa ini. Perdamaian Westphalia lalu diikuti dengan Konvensi Montevideo 1933 @eyr's materials

What is a Nation? What is a State? @eyr's materials

Between Nation and State At least nine academic disciplines develop theories of nationalism and nation states: political geography; international science; cultural anthropology; social philosophy; sociology, history, law, political economy and politics. Konsep nation lebih menyandarkan diri pada aspek normatif dan cultural, sedangkan state/negara lebih pada aspek empiris sociologis faktual. The roots of a nation are to be found in kinship, and a nation grows by a process of differentiation and opposition – but a nation is not simply a cultural togetherness. Neither is it simply an economic togetherness. It is a political togetherness as well. It is a political togetherness concerned both with the structure and the exercise of power. @eyr's materials

Rupert Emerson; From Empire to Nation – The Rise to Self Assertion of Asian and African Peoples , 1960 : The simplest statement that can be made about a nation is that it is a body of people who feel that they are a nation; A nation exists when a significant number of people in a community consider themselves to form a nation, or behave as if they formed one. It is not necessary that the whole of the population should so feel, or so behave, and it is not possible to lay down dogmatically a minimum percentage of a population which must be so affected. When a significant group holds this belief, it possesses national consciousness ‘. @eyr's materials

The word 'State' barangkali diambil dari bahasa latin 'status', yang artinya 'kondisi', kata mana di abad 15 diartikan sebagai 'political institution. Hingga abad 18 belum ada kesepahaman standar tentang apa negara itu, sehingga keberadaan suatu negara merupakan suatu gejala/situasi internal yang tidak memerlukan pengakuan dari negara lain. Oppenheim : “ The formation of a new State is ... A matter of fact, and not of law.” 20th century jumlah negara + 50; Sebelum PD II ada 75 negara; Th 2005 terdapat 192 negara. Grotius : “A State is a complete association of free men, join together for the enjoyment of rights and for their common interest.” @eyr's materials

Grotius tentang pembentukan welfare state (Commonwealth) “The respublica refers to a multitude of private persons who have come together to improve their protection through mutual aid and to assist each other in acquiring the necessities of life. At their own free will these individuals united by way of a civil contract - Grotius uses the term foedus - in a ‘unified and permanent body’ with its own set of laws. From singuli they turn themselves into cives, citizens protection of life, body and possessions. Interesting here is Grotius’ emphasis on the idea of consensus and not on the act of transfer, that is a transfer of natural rights from the individual to a corporative central authority, that is the commonwealth @eyr's materials

Dari “civil contract” menuju ke “sovereignty” “The commonwealth, in other words, represents the standing expression of free individuals and their consensus. It is not dependent on such factors as the number of constituent agents or even geographic location of the commonwealth. Participation in a polity is a necessity, and no one can remain beyond the reach or jurisdiction of political authority.” @eyr's materials

Konsep Vattel relatif lebih legalistik : “ Nations or States are political bodies, societies of men who have united together and combined their forces, in order to procure their mutual welfare and security .” The basic criterion is that such nations be free and independent of one another. “ Every nation which govern it self, under whatever form, and which does not depend on any other Nation, is a sovereign State. Such is the character of the moral persons who live together in a society established by nature @eyr's materials

Elemen/kriteria suatu Negara ( Psl 1 Konvensi Montevideo 1933) Convention on Rights and Duties of States (inter-American); December 26, 1933 mencoba memfiksasi konsep negara ( State) sedemikian rupa agar praktek internasional sedikitnya memiliki rujukan, sbb: Penduduk ------ elemen Objektif Wilayah ;------- elemen Faktual Pemerintahan;--> -”- Kemampuan berinteraksi dengan negara lain. -----------  elemen Subjektif/elemen normatif @eyr's materials

ARTICLE 1 The state as a person of international law should possess the following qualifications: a ) a permanent population; b ) a defined territory; c ) government; and d) capacity to enter into relations with other states. @eyr's materials

ARTICLE 8 No state has the right to intervene in the internal or external affairs of another. ARTICLE 9 The jurisdiction of states within the limits of national territory applies to all the inhabitants. Nationals and foreigners are under the same protection of the law and the national authorities and the foreigners may not claim rights other or more extensive than those of the nationals. @eyr's materials

Judge Anzilotti : Sovereignty ( suprema potestas), external or external sovereignty, by which is meant that the state has over it no other authority than that of international law. Differentiated from ‘dependent states’ . ( suzerain, protectorate, vassal, protégé). If it is subjected itself to international law, is it still independent ?. Or by contractual agreement ? @eyr's materials

It is a fact that sovereignty is a term used without any well-recognised meaning except that of supreme authority. Under these circumstances those who do not want to interfere in a mere scholastic controversy must cling to the facts of life and the practical, though abnormal and illogical, condition of affairs --Lassa Oppenheim But to invoke the concept of national sovereignty as in itself a decisional factor is to fall back on a word which has an emotive quality lacking meaningful specific content. It isto substitute pride for reason?- --Eli Lauterpacht @eyr's materials

The principles of sovereignty and non-intervention had been formulated in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 inspire the Draft Declaration on the Rights and Duties of States Every state was to have the right to independently exercise its legal powers (Article 1), the right to jurisdiction over things and persons within its territories (Article 2), the right to equality in law amongst other states (Article 5) and the right to self-defense (Article 12). These state rights were contrasted with a set of duties,the most important of which being the duty to refrain from intervening in the internal affairs of other states (Article 3) and the duty to settle disputes with other states through peaceful means (Article 8). @eyr's materials

Fundamental Rights of States Until the end of 19th century almost all jurist agreed that states belonging to the community of nations enjoyed the possession of so called fundamental rights, including the right of existence, external independence, self defence, territorial supremacy( sovereignty), intercourse, and respect. Sejak itu berturut turut dicoba dirumuskan tentang the Rights and Duties of States, project called the Fundamental Rights and Duties of American Republics prepared in Rio de Janeiro 1927; Havana Conference 1928, draft mana ditolak oleh USA karena penekanan pada prinsip non intervention yang sangat keras pada draft tersebut. Namun dengan tanpa menyerah 1933 di lanjutkan di Montevideo, di kukuhkan lagi di Buenos Aires 1936 dan di Lima Conference pada tahun 1938 @eyr's materials

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PENGAKUAN & TANGGUNG JAWAB NEGARA Emmy Yuhassarie @eyr's materials 24

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Mengapa Pengakuan masih dijumpai dalam praktik ? Elemen dari Negara tidak pernah statik; Negara senantiasa berubah: muncul, bergabung, bubar; Rezim pemerintahan yang senantiasa berganti karena dalam konsep negara modern tidak ada lagi penguasa yang berhak memerintah seumur hidup. Oleh sebab itu harus ada mekanisme bagi tertib hukum internasional dalam meyakinkan diri dengan siapa ia berurusan, di tengah-tengah 180 subjek ditatanan dunia internasional. @eyr's materials 26

Pengakuan dan Dasar Normatif nya Dasar Normatif Pengakuan dijumpai di Montevideo Convention 1933, Pasal 3 - Psl 6. Pengakuan adalah kehendak salah satu subjek hukum internasional untuk menerima keberadaan subjek hukum internasional lainnya. Kesediaan mana akan ditindak lanjuti dengan hubungan hubungan hukum antar kedua subjek yang bersangkutan * Lihat Konvensi Montevideo Pasal2 tersebut @eyr's materials 27

Seputar PENGAKUAN Pengakuan sendiri merupakan praktek yang penuh ketidakpastian dan ambivalensi. Akibat tindakan pengakuan – sekalipun ber basis lebih politis daripada legal namun melahirkan akibat hukum secara fundamental; Daya laku keputusan pengadilan domestik antar 2 negara dalam konteks hukum akan berubah Antara perbuatan dan proses adalah 2 hal yang perlu dibedakan @eyr's materials 28

Pemikiran skeptis tentang manfaat Pengakuan Hans Kelsen: “The problem of recognition of states and government has neither in theory nor in practice been solved satisfactorily. Hardly any other question is more controversial, or leads in the practice of states to such paradoxical situations” ( 1941) Richard Baxter : “Recognition was an institution of law that causes more problems than it solves, and must be rejected and replaced by working arrangements that are flexible and realistic” @eyr's materials 29

NEGARA PENGAKUAN Montevideo Convention on Right and Duties of States 1933 Psl 1: Penduduk: Teritori/wilayah; Pemerintahan; Kemampuan berinteraksi dg negara lain -> kriteria objektif, ( elemen faktual) -> kriteria subjektif (elemen normatif) @eyr's materials 30

ARTICLE 2 The federal state shall constitute a sole person in the eyes of international law. ARTICLE 3 The political existence of the state is independent of recognition by the other states. Even before recognition the state has the right to defend its integrity and independence, to provide for its conservation and prosperity, and consequently to organize itself as it sees fit, to legislate upon its interests, administer its services, and to define the jurisdiction and competence of its courts. @eyr's materials

BASIC RIGHTS OF STATES ARTICLE 4 States are juridically equal, enjoy the same rights, and have equal capacity in their exercise. The rights of each one do not depend upon the power which it possesses to assure its exercise, but upon the simple fact of its existence as a person under international law. ARTICLE 8 No state has the right to intervene in the internal or external affairs of another. ARTICLE 9 The jurisdiction of states within the limits of national territory applies to all the inhabitants. Nationals and foreigners are under the same protection of the law and the national authorities and the foreigners may not claim rights other or more extensive than those of the nationals. @eyr's materials

Judge Anzilotti : Sovereignty ( suprema potestas), external or in ternal sovereignty, by which is meant that the state has over it no other authority than that of international law. Differentiated from ‘dependent states’ . ( suzerain, protectorate, vassal, protégé). If it is subjected itself to international law, is it still independent ?. Or by contractual agreement ? @eyr's materials

JENIS PENGAKUAN DAN TEORINYA Kriteria Objektif ---- Pengakuan de Facto TEORI DEKLARATUR ( Brierly + sekarang New Haven School) Kriteria subjektif ---- Pengakuan de Jure TEORI KONSTITUTIF ( Lauterpacht) @eyr's materials 34

BENTUK & CARA memberikan Pengakuan Dinyatakan/dideklarasikan dalam dokumen tertulis yang memuat pernyataan resmi Diam diam melakukan perbuatan/ tindakan /hubungan secara informal maupun formal Bergabung dengan pengakuan kolektif UN Bersedia berhubungan secara diplomatik dan dalam konteks komersial memberlakukan atau mengeksekusi hubungan hukum antara keduanya ( sifat retroaktif) @eyr's materials 35

Deklaratif atau Konstitutif ? Konstitutif: Apa pembelaannya? Fungsi retroaktif Deklaratif : Psl 3 Konvensi Montevideo @eyr's materials 36

Pasal 3 The political existence of the state is independent of recognition by the other states. Even before recognition the state has the right to defend its integrity and independence, to provide for its conservation and prosperity, and consequently to organize itself as it sees fit, to legislate upon its interests, administer its services, and to define the jurisdiction and competence of its courts. The exercise of these rights has no other limitation than the exercise of the rights of other states according to international law. @eyr's materials 37

PENGAKUAN : HAK atau KEWAJIBAN?? Art 3 Montevideo Convention (1933) : The political existence of the State is independent of recognition by other State; Even before recognition State has the right to defend its integrity and independence….and to define the jurisdiction and competence of its courts; L’Institut de Droit International (1936) : “…the existence of the new State with all the legal effects connected with that existence is not affected by the refusal of one or more States to recognize. @eyr's materials 38

Pengakuan diperlukan juga bagi : PEMERINTAHAN; Perolehan Wilayah Perolehan Wilayah: - penemuan; - okupasi; - agresi/aneksasi; - sesi (Cession); - preskripsi; - akresi @eyr's materials 39

Pengakuan terhadap Pemerintahan Pemerintahan baru ( Government –Elect); Insurgent, Belligerent. @eyr's materials 40

Kriteria Pengakuan Pemerintahan Cara perolehan kekuasaan; a. Kudeta; b. pengambil alihan secara damai; c. Pemilu; referendum Power Control terhadap teritori dan penduduk; Penguasaan secara damai/ hak azasi, dan tidak ada kesewenang- wenangan. @eyr's materials 41

Sikap beberapa Negara: Inggris bersikap pragmatis, melihat siatuasi yg observable yakni kontrol secara fisik; ( kemudian diikuti negara Commonwealth lainnya) Negara Amerika Latin menolak memberikan pengakuan thd belligerent atau hasil kudeta Doktrin Tobar (1907, 1923) Doktrin Estrada, non intervention doctrine, hanya memelihara hubungan diplomatik saja. ( 1930) mengingat Amerika latin sarat dengan kudeta. @eyr's materials 42

Government Control Apakah konsep Inggris mengandung kelemahan? 1. Erosi legitimasi pemerintahan, lihat genocide di Darfur, Rwanda, Haiti. 2. Ketimpangan keberadaban, artikulasi kekuasaan; tanpa panduan nilai kemanusiaan 3. Globalisasi mengkikis kontrol pemerintah terhadap interaksi transnasional, termasuk pengawasan terhadap unit subjek hukum di wilayah negara. ( IMF lending; credit crunch ) 4. Kelemahan kontrol pemerintah mengakibatkan negara jadi persemaian kejahatan internasional. @eyr's materials 43

Any Question?? @eyr's materials 44

LITERATUR Aust, Anthony ; Handbook of International Law ; Cambridge 2005 Dugard, John; Recognition and The United Nations, Hersch Lauterpacht Memorial Lectures; Grotius, 1987 4. O Brien, John: International Law; Cavendish - 2002 5. Van Glahn, Gerhard; Law Among National; Allyn & Bacon 1996 Sloane, Robert D; The Changing Face of Recognition in International Law: A Case Study of Tibet ; Emory International Law Review, 2002 Wallace, Rebecca M.M.; International Law; Sweet Maxwell, 1992 @eyr's materials

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TERIMA KASIH... SUMBER: The International Law Commission’s Articles on STATE RESPONSIBILITY: Introduction, Text and Commentaries. Cambridge – 2002. TERIMA KASIH... @eyr's materials