MIKROBIOLOGI DASAR POKOK BAHASAN PENDAHULUAN PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME STRUKTUR DAN FUNGSI SEL MIKROORGANISME PERTUMBUHAN MIKROORGANISME GENETIKA MIKROORGANISME BIOENERGETIKA MIKROORGANISME PENGENDALIAN PERTUMBUHAN MIKROORGANISME INTERAKSI DAN PENYEBARAN MIKROORGANISME PERANAN MIKROORGANISME MIKROBIOLOGI DASAR

02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME POKOK BAHASAN PENDAHULUAN EVOLUSI DAN KERAGAMAN MIKROBA TINGKATAN TAKSONOMI SISTEM KLASIFIKASI KARAKTERISTIK UTAMA YANG DIGUNAKAN DALAM TAKSONOMI PERKIRAAN (ASSESSING) FILOGENI MIKROBA DIVISI UTAMA ORGANISME BERGEY’S MANUAL OF SYSTEMATIC BACTERIOLOGY GARIS BESAR FILOGENI DAN KERAGAMAN PROKARIOT MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA

X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME POKOK BAHASAN ARCHAEA BACTERIA FUNGI ALGAE PROTOZOA VIRUS

NUTRISI DAN METABOLISME ENCYSTMENT AND EXCYSTMENT ORGANEL PERGERAKAN 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA PROTOZOA POKOK BAHASAN PENDAHULUAN DISTRIBUSI NILAI PENTING MORFOLOGI NUTRISI DAN METABOLISME ENCYSTMENT AND EXCYSTMENT ORGANEL PERGERAKAN REPRODUKSI PENGGOLONGAN PROTOZOA Kingdom Fungi comprises the fungi, such as MUSHROOMS, MOLDS, and YEASTS, eukaryotic heterotrophs that digest food outside of their bodies. Most fungi are multicellular, but some, the yeasts, are simple unicellular organisms probably evolved from multicellular ancestors. Fungi are present all over the world, in marine as well as terrestrial environments. Many fungi have symbiotic relationships with plants known as mycorrhizae; in fact, it was as mycorrhizal partners of plants that fungi probably first moved onto land. Most fungi are decomposers, breaking dead organisms down into detritus and returning inorganic nutrients to the ecosystem. As such, fungi are also extremely adaptable, and can break down many substances, including some toxic pollutants. This adaptability also accounts for the presence of fungi in many very different environments around the world. A fungal organism consists of a mass of threadlike filaments called HYPHAE, which combine to make up the fungal MYCELIUM. Each hypha is composed of a chain of fungal cells, or, in some organisms, a continuous cytoplasm with many nuclei. The hypha is surrounded by a plasma membrane and a cell wall, which is made of the polysaccharide CHITIN, in contrast to plant cell walls made of cellulose. The hyphae in a fungus branch off of one another to form the mycelium, and are all ultimately connected to the original hypha. Though fungal cells and hyphae are nonmotile, and never have flagellated cells of any kind, a fungal mycelium can expand quickly through very rapid mitotic growth, adding up to a kilometer of new hyphae per day. For large underground mycelia, fruiting bodies grow above ground, such as the mushroom, which is only an extension of an underground mycelium. These fruiting bodies are the reproductive structures of the mycelium

PROTOZOA PENDAHULUAN Protozoa are a polyphyletic group of organisms 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME PROTOZOA X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA PENDAHULUAN Protozoa are a polyphyletic group of organisms Protozoa are unicellular, eucaryotic protists that are usually motile Protozoology is the study of protozoa Some protozoa are anaerobic (e.g., Trichonympha lives in the gut of termites) Most anaerobic protozoa do not have mitochondria or CYTOCHROMES, and have an INCOMPLETE TCA CYCLE Some anaerobic protozoa contain HYDROGENOSOMES - small membrane-delimited organelles containing a unique ELECTRON TRANSFER SYSTEM that uses protons as terminal electron acceptors to form molecular hydrogen

02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME PROTOZOA X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA DISTSRIBUSI Primarily in moist habitats (because they lack a cell wall), including freshwater (ponds, streams, lakes) and marine (oceans) Some live in moist soil, beach sand, and decaying organic matter Most are free living, free-living, critical members of plankton drifting organisms that form the basis of aquatic food chains Some are parasitic in plants and animals Very few are pathogens

PROTOZOA NILAI PENTING 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME PROTOZOA X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA NILAI PENTING Serve as an important link in food chains and food webs (zooplankton) Food chain-series of organisms, each feeding on the preceding one Food web-complex interlocking series of food chains Important in the study of biochemistry and molecular biology because they use the same metabolic pathways as multicellular eucaryotes Causative agents of some important diseases in humans and other animals

PROTOZOA MORFOLOGI Protozoa have some unique features 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME PROTOZOA X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA MORFOLOGI Protozoa have some unique features ECTOPLASM is the gelatinous cytoplasm just inside the plasma membrane; it provides some rigidity and shape PELLICLE consists of the plasma membrane and the structures immediately beneath it ENDOPLASM is the more fluid cytoplasm in the interior of the cell Some have one nucleus, some have two or more identical nuclei, and some have two distinct types of nuclei The MACRONUCLEUS is associated with trophic activities and regenerative processes The MICRONUCLEUS controls reproductive activities by sequestering genetic material for exchange during reproduction VACUOLES are usually present CONTRACTILE VACUOLES are osmoregulatory PHAGOCYTIC VACUOLES are sites of food digestion SECRETORY VACUOLES usually contain enzymes for specific functions, such as excystation

02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME PROTOZOA X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA NUTRISI In holozoic nutrition, nutrients are acquired by PHAGOCYTOSIS; some ciliates have a specialized structure, called a CYTOSOME, for phagocytosis In SAPROZOIC NUTRITION, nutrients are acquired by PINOCYTOSIS, DIFFUSION, or CARRIER-MEDIATED TRANSPORT (facilitated diffusion or active transport)

ENCYSTMENT AND EXCYSTMENT 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME PROTOZOA X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA ENCYSTMENT AND EXCYSTMENT ENCYSTATION is the development of a resting stage structure called a cyst The cyst is a dormant form that has a wall and greatly reduced metabolic activity Functions of cysts Protect against adverse changes in the environment Function as sites for nuclear reorganization and cell division Serve as a means of transfer from one host to another for parasitic species EXCYSTATION is the escape of vegetative forms, called trophozoites, from the cyst; it is usually triggered by a return to a favorable environment (e.g., such as entry into a new host for parasitic species)

PROTOZOA ORGANEL PERGERAKAN A few protozoa are nonmotile 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME PROTOZOA X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA ORGANEL PERGERAKAN A few protozoa are nonmotile Most use one of three major types of locomotory organelles Pseudopodia-cytoplasmic extensions CILIA-filamentous extensions (short) FLAGELLA-filamentous extensions (long) flagellum.swf

PROTOZOA REPRODUKSI The most common method of ASEXUAL reproduction is: 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME PROTOZOA X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA REPRODUKSI The most common method of ASEXUAL reproduction is: BINARY FISSION, which involves mitosis followed by cytokinesis The most common type of SEXUAL reproduction is: conjugation, an exchange of gametic nuclei between paired protozoa of complementary mating types

PENGGOLONGAN PROTOZOA 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME PROTOZOA X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA PENGGOLONGAN PROTOZOA The most accepted scheme classifies protozoa as a subkingdom of protists, containing SEVEN PHYLA; classification is based primarily on types of nuclei, mode of reproduction, and mechanism of locomotion Recently, other schemes have been suggested CAVALIER-SMITH has proposed elevating the protozoa to the status of a kingdom with 18 phyla Molecular classification schemes suggest that the protozoa do not exist as an evolutionary taxon, but rather that the protozoa are polyphyletic

PENGGOLONGAN PROTOZOA 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME PROTOZOA X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA PENGGOLONGAN PROTOZOA PHYLUM: SARCOMASTIGOPHORA LABYRINTHOMORPHA APICOMPLEXA MICROSPORA ACETOSPORA MYXOZOA CILIOPHORA

PENGGOLONGAN PROTOZOA 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME PROTOZOA X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA PENGGOLONGAN PROTOZOA 1) SARCOMASTIGOPHORA This phylum includes protists with: a single type of nucleus and flagella or pseudopodia; they reproduce asexually and sexually

PENGGOLONGAN PROTOZOA 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME PROTOZOA X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA PENGGOLONGAN PROTOZOA 1) SARCOMASTIGOPHORA (lanjutan) Subphylum MASTIGOPHORA contains both phytoflagellates (chloroplast-bearing flagellates) and zooflagellates; ZOOFLAGELLATES have the following characteristics: Do not have chlorophyll; are holozoic or saprozoic Asexual reproduction occurs by LONGITUDINAL BINARY FISSION; sexual reproduction is known for a few species, and ENCYSTMENT is common One group, the kinetoplastids, has mitochondrial DNA in a special region called the KINETOPLAST Some are free living; some are ENDOSYMBIOTIC (e.g., Trichonympha species in the intestines of termites Many are important HUMAN PARASITES (e.g., Trichomonas vaginalis, Giardia lamblia, and Trypanosoma brucei)

PENGGOLONGAN PROTOZOA 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME PROTOZOA X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA PENGGOLONGAN PROTOZOA 1) SARCOMASTIGOPHORA (lanjutan) Subphylum SARCODINA contains amoeboid organisms Found in aquatic and terrestrial habitats, where they take up nutrients by PHAGOCYTOSIS and PINOCYTOSIS Reproduction is usually by simple ASEXUAL BINARY FISSION; some form CYSTS Some have a loose-fitting shell called a TEST (e.g., foraminiferans and radiolarians, which are primarily marine amoebae; a few occur in fresh or brackish water) Some are ENDOSYMBIONTS and can be either commensals or parasites; some are free-living, disease-causing amoebae

PENGGOLONGAN PROTOZOA 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME PROTOZOA X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA PENGGOLONGAN PROTOZOA 2) LABYRINTHOMORPHA PROTISTS with: spindle-shaped or spherical, nonamoeboid, vegetative cells; some move by gliding motion on mucous tracks Most members are marine organisms and are either SAPROZOIC or PARASITIC on algae

PENGGOLONGAN PROTOZOA 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME PROTOZOA X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA PENGGOLONGAN PROTOZOA 3) APICOMPLEXA Often called SPOROZOANS because they have a spore-forming stage in their life cycle; lack locomotory organelles, except the male gametes and the zygotes (ookinetes); are either intra- or intercellular parasites having a characteristic structure called the APICAL COMPLEX APICAL COMPLEX - a unique arrangement of fibrils, tubules, vacuoles, and other organelles at one end of the cell One or two polar rings at the apical end CONOID-spirally arranged fibers adjacent to the polar rings SUBPELLICULAR MICROTUBULES radiate from the polar rings and probably serve as support elements RHOPTRIES extend to the plasma membrane and secrete their contents at the cell surface (probably aids in host cell penetration) MICROPORES take in nutrients

PENGGOLONGAN PROTOZOA 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME PROTOZOA X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA PENGGOLONGAN PROTOZOA 3) APICOMPLEXA (lanjutan) Have complex life cycles involving two different hosts (usually mammal and often a mosquito) Life cycle has both asexual and sexual phases and is characterized by an alternation of haploid and diploid generations At some point in the life cycle, they undergo schizogony, a rapid series of mitotic events producing a large number of small infective organisms through the formation of uninuclear buds Sexual reproduction involves the formation of a thick-walled oocyst after fertilization; meiosis within this structure then produces haploid infective spores

PENGGOLONGAN PROTOZOA 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME PROTOZOA X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA PENGGOLONGAN PROTOZOA 3) APICOMPLEXA (lanjutan) This group includes some very important pathogens Plasmodium-malaria Cryptosporidium-cryptosporidiosis Toxoplasma-toxoplasmosis Eimeria-coccidiosis

PENGGOLONGAN PROTOZOA 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME PROTOZOA X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA PENGGOLONGAN PROTOZOA 4) MICROSPORA Obligately intracellular parasites lacking mitochondria and transmitted by a RESISTANT SPORE Several economically important pathogens of insects There has been increased interest in their use as BIOLOGICAL PEST CONTROL Recently, five genera have been implicated in human diseases in immunosuppressed patients (e.g., AIDS patients)

PENGGOLONGAN PROTOZOA 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME PROTOZOA X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA PENGGOLONGAN PROTOZOA 5) ACETOSPORA PARASITIC PROTISTS: Spores that lack polar caps or polar filaments, parasitic in mollusks

PENGGOLONGAN PROTOZOA 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME PROTOZOA X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA PENGGOLONGAN PROTOZOA 6) MYXOZOA parasitic protists with resistant spores having one to six coiled polar filaments; parasitic on freshwater and marine fish; can cause a major economic problem in cultured salmon

PENGGOLONGAN PROTOZOA 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME PROTOZOA X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA PENGGOLONGAN PROTOZOA 7) CILIOPHORA The largest of the seven phyla; these organisms are distinguished by the use of cilia as locomotory organelles Cilia arranged in longitudinal rows or spirals Oblique stroke of cilia causes ciliates to rotate as they swim Can move forward or backward Numerous interesting morphological characteristics are observed: slipper-shaped cells, stalked cells, tentacles, and threadlike darts called toxicysts

PENGGOLONGAN PROTOZOA 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME PROTOZOA X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA PENGGOLONGAN PROTOZOA 7) CILIOPHORA Feeding behavior Food is captured by action of cilia around the buccal cavity; food enters the cytostome and passes to phagocytic vacuoles that fuse with lysosomes, where digestion occurs After digestion the vacuoles fuse with a special region of the pellicle, called the cytoproct, which empties the cell's waste material to the outside4. Most have two types of nuclei Micronucleus-diploid; functions in mitosis and meiosis Macronucleus-polyploid for some genes; maintains routine cellular functions Asexual reproduction is by transverse binary fission; sexual reproduction usually is by conjugation Most are free-living; some are harmless commensals; others are disease-causing parasites

sekian ......

PROTOZOA MORFOLOGI 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA MORFOLOGI 9 8 ECTOPLASM PELLICLE ENDOPLASM MACRONUCLEUS MICRONUCLEUS CONTRACTILE VACUOLES PHAGOCYTIC VACUOLES SECRETORY VACUOLES 7 6 5 1 2 3 CONTRACTILE VACUOLES are osmoregulatory PHAGOCYTIC VACUOLES are sites of food digestion SECRETORY VACUOLES usually contain enzymes for specific functions, such as excystation The MICRONUCLEUS controls reproductive activities by sequestering genetic material for exchange during reproduction ECTOPLASM is the gelatinous cytoplasm just inside the plasma membrane; it provides some rigidity and shape ENDOPLASM is the more fluid cytoplasm in the interior of the cell The MACRONUCLEUS is associated with trophic activities and regenerative processes PELLICLE consists of the plasma membrane and the structures immediately beneath it 4

Nuclear Division

Nuclear Division

Cytokinesis (Cytoplasmic Division) Typically occurs simultaneously with telophase of mitosis In some algae and fungi, may be postponed or not occur at all Results in multinucleated cells called coenocytes

Cytokinesis

Schizogony Plasmodium, which causes malaria, reproduces asexually within red blood cells and liver cells by a special type of reproduction called schizogony Multiple mitoses form multinucleate schizont Cytokinesis occurs releasing numerous daughter cells called merozoites Classic fever and chills associated with release

Schizogony

Classification Eukaryotic Organisms Trouble classifying For us: Protozoa Fungi Algea – will skip Others: Parasitic Helminths and Vectors

Protozoa Diverse group defined by three characteristics Eukaryotic Unicellular Lack a cell wall With exception of apicomplexans, they are also motile by means of cilia, flagella, and/or pseudopodia Study is protozoology; protozoologist

Distribution of Protozoa Require moist environments because they lack a cell wall Most live worldwide in ponds, streams, lakes, and oceans; critical members of plankton – free-living, drifting organisms that form the basis of aquatic food chains Some live in moist soil, beach sand, and decaying organic matter Very few are pathogens

Morphology of Protozoa Characterized by great morphologic diversity Some have two nuclei (Paramecium) Macronucleus (50n) contains many copies of genome – controls metabolism, growth, and sexual reproduction Micronucleus – involved in genetic recombination, sexual reproduction, and regeneration of macronuclei

Morphology of Protozoa

Morphology of Protozoa Variety in number and kinds of mitochondria Some have contractile vacuoles All produce trophozoites – motile feeding stage; some produce cysts – resting stage One trophozoite forms one cyst; to allow intestinal protozoa to pass from one host to another and to survive harsh environments

Protozoan Life Cycle

Nutrition of Protozoa Most are chemoheterotrophic Obtain nutrients by phagocytizing bacteria, decaying organic matter, other protozoa, or the tissues of host Few absorb nutrients from surrounding water Dinoflagellates and euglenoids are photoautrophic

Reproduction in Protozoa Most reproduce asexually only (binary fission or schizogony) Few also have sexual reproduction Some become gametocytes that fuse to form diploid zygote Some utilize a process called conjugation

Conjugation in Paramecium

Ciliates Plasmodium – malaria Babesia – anemia Toxoplasma - toxoplasmosis

Dinoflagellates Pfiesteria – neurotoxin, most potent; poison when handled can cause memory loss, confusion, headache, respiratory difficulties, skin rash, muscle cramps, diarrhea, nausea and vomiting – possible estuary-associated syndrome (PEAS)

Pfiesteria

Amoebae Pseudopodia for movement Naegleria – primary amoebic meningoencephalitis Acanthamoeba spp. – amoebic encephalitis Entamoeba histolytica – amoebic dysentery