Bab 7 Logika Induktif.

Bab 7 Logika Induktif

Logika Induktif Hakikat
Kelemahan Logika Deduktif Tidak selalu dapat menemukan premis yang memadai Contoh: tidak dapat menemukan jumlah gigi di mulut kuda Logika Induktif Sudah dikemukakan oleh Aristoteles Kurang disukai oleh ahli filsafat zaman kuno Digalakkan oleh Roger Bacon, Francis Bacon, David Hume, dan lainnya Mulai dari kasus yang cukup menuju ke generalisasi Kelemahan: terjadi lompatan dari sebagian menjadi semua

Induction in logic, method of reasoning from a part to a whole, from particulars to generals, or from the individual to the universal; as it applies to logic in systems of the 20th century, the term is obsolete. Traditionally, logicians distinguished between deductive logic (inference in which the conclusion follows necessarily from the premise, or drawing new propositions out of premises in which they lie latent) and inductive logic, but the problems earlier subsumed under induction are considered to be concerns of the methodology of the natural sciences, and logic is generally taken to mean deductive logic.

Logika Induktif Generalisasi
Berdasarkan kasus membuat kesimpulan berlaku untuk semua Contoh: Kasus : sejumlah gagak berbulu hitam Generalisasi: semua gagak berbulu hitam Kasus : banyak swan berbulu putih Generalisasi: semua swan berbulu putih Kedapatan : swan berbulu hitam di Australia Dasar generalisasi Murni empirik Empirik ditambah argumentasi (alasan)

Generalisasi Empirik Hanya berdasarkan pengalaman Contoh Semua burung gagak berbulu hitam Semua swan berbulu putih Semua tukang las ketok memasang merek “ketok magic” Semua taksi bandara ber-AC memasang merek “full AC” Semua ikan berwarna cerah lebih agresif dari ikan berwarna redup Semua kucing mengeong Semua nyamuk tidak bergigi (bagaimana bisa digigit nyamuk?) Ada risiko keliru

Generalisasi Berpenjelasan Selain pengalaman empirik, generalisasi diperkuat dengan penjelasan (alasan) Contoh Ketika udara panas, semua anjing menjulurkan lidah (menyejukkan diri melalui penguapan) Semua bahasa asal daerah tropis, mengandung banyak huruf hidup (membuka mulut lebar-lebar membantu penyejukan) Semua bahasa asal daerah kutub, mengandung banyak huruf mati (sedikit membuka mulut agar tidak kedinginan) Semua kuda nil merendam di dalam air (kulit kuda nil tidak berpori sehingga tidak dapat berkeringat untuk mendinginkan tubuh) Juga ada risiko keliru

Reliabilitas Generalisasi Reliabilitas generalisasi adalah tingkat kepercayaan tentang kebenaran generalisasi itu Generalisasi makin kuat jika tingkat reliabilitasnya makin tinggi Ada beberapa cara untuk meningkatkan reliabilitas generalisasi Enumerasi Banyak kasus dan representatif Homogenitas Melihat seluruh kasus Reliabilitas adalah maksimum Banyak hal yang tidak mungkin dienumerasi

Banyak Kasus dan Representatif Kasus yang diamati supaya cukup banyak Sumber kasus supaya representatif Cara ini dapat meningkatkan tingkat reliabilitas Memerlukan berapa banyak dan berapa representatif menjadi studi tiap bidang ilmu Homogenitas Makin homogen kasusnya makin tinggi tingkat reliabilitasnya Kalau homogen sempurna, maka cukup dengan satu kasus (terjadi di laboratorium fisika dan kimia; di mana saja, garam dapur adalah sama) Digunakan pada metodologi penelitian supaya memperkecil kekeliruan baku

Generalisasi dan Hukum Generalisasi dapat melahirkan hukum baru (temuan baru) yang dapat terus diuji Bermacam-macam jenis hukum: Konstitusi, seperti zat terdiri atas molekul Urutan, seperti siang diikuti malam Korelasi, seperti korelasi negatif di antara harga barang dan jumlah pembeli Kosalitas (sebab-akibat), seperti pengaruh pupuk terhadap kesuburan tanaman Analogi, seperti kesamaan hukum pada pegas dan udara Kosalitas dan Analogi Akan dibahas di sini

Logika Induktif Kosalitas
Ada penyebab dan ada akibat Tidak mudah untuk menentukan syarat kosalitas; diperdebatkan oleh para ahli Ada pendapat bahwa kosalitas lebih terletak di dalam pikiran manusia Sangat berguna untuk keperluan prediksi Syarat Kosalitas Akan dilihat beberapa patokan syarat dari David Hume John Stuart Mill Analisis kosal

Logika Induktif Syarat Kosalitas Hume
(1) Sebab-akibat terkait sangat erat di dalam ruang dan waktu (berjulat atau contiguous) (2) Di dalam urutan waktu, sebab mendahului akibat (3) Di antara sebab dan akibat terdapat hubungan-perlu (necessary connection) Hubungan-Perlu (Necessary Connection) Ada syarat-perlu dan syarat-cukup Untuk memenuhi hubungan-perlu, kedua syarat ini harus dipenuhi

Syarat-perlu (necessary condition) A adalah syarat-perlu bagi B; jika A tiada maka B juga tiada Uang adalah syarat perlu bagi belanja; jika tidak ada uang, maka tidak bisa belanja Syarat-Cukup (Sufficient Condition) A adalah syarat-cukup bagi B; jika A ada maka juga ada B Ada uang (syarat-perlu) belum tentu belanja; pada syarat-cukup, jika ada uang maka harus belanja Hubungan-perlu (Necessary connection) Tiada uang tidak bisa belanja Ada uang harus belanja

Contoh Kosalitas Syarat-perlu Bahan bakar, temperatur yang cocok, dan oksigen adalah syarat-perlu untuk kabakaran Jika tidak ada bahan bakar, temperatur yang cocok, dan oksigen, maka tidak terjadi kebakaran Syarat-cukup Tendangan sapi ke lentera berisi bahan bakar adalah syarat-cukup untuk terjadi kebakaran kota Jika sapi tidak menendang lentera, sekalipun ada bahan bakar, ada temperatur yang cocok, dan oksigen, maka tidak terjadi kebakaran kota

Logika Induktif Syarat Kosalitas Mill
Syarat Kosalitas John Stuart Mill (1) Metoda kecocokan (2) Metoda perbedaan (3) Gabungan metoda kecocokan dan perbedaan (4) Metoda kovariasi (5) Metoda residu Metoda Kecocokan Jika satu dan hanya satu keadaan relevan yang ada di semua kasus yang menghasilkan akibat, maka keadaan itu adalah penyebab atau berkaitan dengan penyebab

Contoh (1) Metoda Kecocokan Calon Penyebab terjadi akibat A B C D E A B F G H E A C I J E A C I J K E A C I J H E A B C D F E A ada di semua keadaan, maka A adalah penyebab

Contoh (2) Metoda Kecocokan Setiap hari si Anu sakit perut. Ia menduga makanan pagi adalah penyebabnya Senin: pisang, kopi, gula, roti, mentega Selasa: pisang, susu, roti, sirup Rabu: pisang, kopi, gula, ikan, roti Kamis: pisang, havermout, gula, susu, telur Jumlah: pisang, susu, kue, sirup Diduga penyebab: pisang (mungkin saja bukan karena makan, atau karena makanan semalam, atau mungkin juga interaksi komponen makanan)

Logika Induktif Metoda Kosalitas Mill
Contoh (3) Metoda Kecocokan Ada kelemahan,: Keadaan Akibat minum whiskey + es mabuk Minum brandy ++ es mabuk Minum cognac + es mabuk minum vodka + es mabuk Jadi, penyebab mabuk: es (penyebab sesungguhnya adalah komponen yang ada di semua minuman: alkohol)

Metoda Perbedaan Jika keadaan adalah sama dalam segala hal kecuali satu, dan jika akibat terjadi pada semua hal kecuali pada hal tiadanya satu itu, maka satu itu adalah penyebab atau terkait dengan penyebab Contoh (4) Metoda Perbedaan Keadaan Akibat A B C D F terjadi E B C D F tidak terjadi E bJadi, penyebab adalah A

Contoh (5) Metoda Perbedaan Hari Sabtu, Anu makan pagi seperti hari Jumat kecuali pisang: Susu, kue, sirup Kalau akibatnya tidak sakit perut, maka pisang adalah penyebabnya Contoh (6) Metoda Perbedaan Minum voda tanpa es Kalau masih mabuk, maka es bukan penyebabnya

Metoda Gabungan Kecocokan dan Perbedaan Keadaan relevan ada pada semua hal ketika terjadi akibat serta tidak ada ketika tidak terjadi akibat adalah penyebab atau terkait dengan penyebab Contoh (7) Metoda Gabungan Kecocokan dan Perbedaan Keadaan Akibat A B C D terjadi E A B F G H terjadi E B C D F tidak terjadi E Jadi A adalah penyebab

Metoda Kovariasi Apabila satu keadaan berubah secara teratur ketika keadaan lain berubah, maka ada semacam hubungan kosal di antara mereka Contoh (8) Metoda Kovariasi Pada hukum Boyle, dalam keadaan temperatur tetap, tekanan gas berubah ketika voluma berubah voluma tekanan v p1 v p2 v p3

Contoh (9) Metoda Kovariasi Pupuk Kesuburan tumbuhan tiada so satu satuan s1 dua satuan s2 tiga satuan s3 Contoh (10) Metoda Kovariasi Harga barang Jumlah pembeli ho po h p1 h2 p2

Contoh (11) Metoda Kovariasi Lelaki Perempuan jml ro raio mor- jml ro- rasio mor- kok/hari talitas rok/hari talitas tiada , tiada ,0 ,8 , ,1 ,6 > , > ,4

Lelaki rasio mortalitas umur mulai umur umur umur merokok < , , ,76 , , ,37 , , ,11 > , , ,38 tidak merokok , , ,00 Berhenti merokok % kanker paru thd (tahun) tidak merokok < >

Contoh (12) Metoda Kovariasi Dapat terjadi karena kebetulan (sehingga memerlukan alasan hubungan) tanggal X Y 11/9 – 12/9 – 13/9 – 14/9 – 15/9 – 16/9 – 17/9 – 18/9 – 19/9 – 20/9 – X = temperatur terendah di kutub Y = jumlah mahasiswa bolos di Jakarta hubungannya r = 0,79 (cukup tinggi)

Metoda Residu Apabila bagian dari akibat tidak dapat dijelaskan oleh keadaan penyebab yang diketahui, maka keadaan tambahan perlu dicari untuk menjelaskan bagian yang tidak terjelaskan dari akibat itu Contoh (13) Metoda Residu Akibat terdiri atas bagian Y1 dan Y2 Penyebab Bagian akibat X Y1 Sebab tambahan X Y2

Logika Induktif Syarat Analisis Kosal
Analisis Kosal (10 syarat) (1) ada model struktural (2) ada alasan teoretik tentang kosal (3) ada spesifikasi urutan kosal (4) ada spesifikasi arah kosal (5) ada persamaan fungsional yang self-contained (6) ada spesifikasi batas (7) kestabilan model struktural (8) ada operasionalisi variabel (9) ada dukugan data empirik terhadap persamaan fungsional (10) ada kecocokan di antara model struktural dan data empirik

Kondisi 1: Ada model sturktural X1 Y1 Y2 X2 Kondisi 2: Ada alasan teoretik Untuk memisahkan hubungan fungsional sebab-akibat dari sekedar kebetulan Perlu mengidentifikasi mekanisme dari hubungan fungsional itu

Kondisi 3: Spesifikasi urutan kosal Perlu ada kepastian urutan bahwa sebab terjadi sebelum akibat Dalam keadaan tidak pasti, urutan waktu dapat diperdebatkan Kalau tidak dapat dipastikan maka tidak bisa menjadi sebab-akibat Kondisi 4: Spesifikasi arah kosal Hanya boleh satu arah dari sebab ke akibat (asimetrik) Tidak boleh bolak-balik seperti telur dan ayam, baik secara cepat maupun lambat

Kondisi 5: Persamaan fungsional self-contained Semua penyebab yang relevan sudah termasuk ke dalam hubungan fungsional Harus self-contained yakni tidak berhubungan dengan luar sistem Kondisi 6: Spesifikasi perbatasan Setiap variabel termasuk variabel moderator membentuk lingkupan Makin banyak moderator makin tinggi kompleksitasnya Perlu ada batas lingkupan yang jelas

Kondisi 7: Kestabilan model struktural Dari sebab ke akibat terjadi perubahan, bisa cepat atau lambat, bisa langsung atau bertahap Perubahan berhenti pada saat terjadi keseimbangan pada perubahan itu Pengukuran dilakukan pada saat keseimbangan Kondisi 8: Operasionalisasi variabel Variabel dapat diukur sehingga menghasilkan data kuantitatif Perlu ada skala dan alat ukur yang cocok dengan kalibrasi yang memadai Pada variabel laten perlu dicari variabel manifes yang sepadan

Kondisi 9: Dukungan empiris kepada persamaan fungsional Hubungan fungsional kosalitas menghasilkan prediksi Prediksi mendukung model struktural, dari hubungan fungsional ke persamaan fungsional Diuji apakah prediksinya konsisten atau didukung oleh data empirik Kondisi 10: Kecocokan di antara model struktural dengan data empirik Perlu diuji kecocokan di antara bentuk model struktural dengan data empirik Misalnya, hubungan kuadratis atau kubik atau eksponensial, didukung oleh data empirik

Logika Induktif Analogi
Menyusun teori atau hukum berdasarkan kemiripan penting dengan teori atau hukum yang telah diketahui Misalnya, hukum dan teori pada X sudah diketahui; Y mirip dengan X; susun hukum dan teori pada Y meniru hukum dan teori pada X Contoh Analogi Sifat pegas, tekanan pada kolom udara, dan rangkaian listrik adalah mirip Rumus pada pegas telah diketahui Susun rumus pada kolom udara dan pada rangkaian listrik meniru rumus pada pegas

Logika Induktif Analogi
Contoh Analogi Entropi pada termodinamika digunakan sebagai analogi untuk keteraturan alam dan untuk teori informasi Hubungan meson dengan medan kuat mengambil analogi dari hubungan foton dengan medan elektromagnetik Keunggulan dan Kelemahan Analogi Dapat memanfaatkan pemikiran yang sudah ada pada keadaan tertentu untuk keadaan lain Sering digunakan di antara ilmu berbeda, misalnya, organisasi sosial menggunakan biologi sebagai analogi Ada kemungkinan keliru

ANALOGY Analogy (from Greek ana logon “according to ratio”), originally, a similarity in proportional relationship. It may be similarity between two figures (e.g., triangles) that differ in scale or between two quantities, one of which, though unknown, can be calculated if its relation to the other is known to be similar to that in which two other known quantities stand. Thus if 2 : 4 :: 4: x, it can be seen that x = 8. Another form of analogy noted by the Greeks is that of inferring similarity of function; known as “educing the correlate.” Aristotle (Topics, i, 17) stated the formulas of these two kinds of analogy: “As A is to B, so C is to D” and “ As A is in B, so C is in D.” Plato employed a functional analogy when he argued that the Idea of the God makes knowledge possible in the intelligent world just as the Sun makes vision possible in the perceptual world. Here a relationship not yet understood is analogous to one already familiar. In the Middle Ages it was believed that the universe formed an ordered structure such that the macrocosmic pattern of the whole is reproduced in the microcosmic pattern of the parts so that it is possible to draw inferences by analogy from the one to the other. Thus, the law of nature conceived in the juridical sense, which prescribes the fitting order of human relationships, could be assimilated to the physical sense

of law, which describes the order obtaining in the natural world
of law, which describes the order obtaining in the natural world. Because the natural world exhibited hierarchical degrees of subordination, it was argued, human relationships should also exhibit such subordination. Such parallels were held to constitute arguments and not merely allegorical illustrations; it was contended, for instance, that as there were two luminaries to light the world and two authorities set oven man (the papacy and the empire), then, as the Moon’s light is reflected from the Sun, so the imperial authority must be derived from the papal. Dante, in his De monarchia (c. 1313), while claiming that it is light and not authority that the empire derives from the papacy, nevertheless, accepted the principles on which such arguments are built. In scientific thinking analogies or resemblances may be used to suggest hypotheses or the existence of some law or principle, especially if a comparison can be made between the functions of elements in two systems, as when observation of the moon of Jupiter suggested by analogy the modern conception of solar system. The argument of Thomas Robert Malthus, the English economist, the population tends to increase in

numbers beyond the means of their subsistence suggested to Charles Darwin the evolutionary hypothesis of natural selection. The fruitfulness of such analogies depends on whether the resemblance is of a fundamental or a merely superficial kind. Functional resemblances are more likely to be fundamental than qualitative ones (such as colour). It would not be legitimate, for instance, to conclude from the model of atomic nucleus as a miniature solar system that the process of nuclear fission is similar to that by which new planetary systems may be formed or disrupted. In social and political discussion analogous may elucidate some unfamiliar point in terms of what is more familiar. Thus, biological analogies are misleading, however, insofar as they overlook that fact that individual members of the community also have purposes, rights, and responsibilities of their own. In employing the method of analogy, it should always be possible to show that the resemblances noted bear relevantly on the point to be established, whereas the differences are irrelevant. In many cases it is difficult to be sure of this construction, and arguments from analogy are therefore precarious unless supported by considerations that can be established independently.

Logika Induktif Induktivisme
Penyusunan hukum dan teori melalui logika induktif Menggunakan cara seperti terdapat pada logika induktif yakni menggunakan generalisasi dari kasus Dapat menghasilkan hukum dan teori baru Syarat Induktivisme Amatan yang menjadi dasar bagi generalisasi harus cukup banyak dan cukup representatif Amatan diperoleh dari aneka kondisi yang luas Tidak ada amatan yang bertentangan dengan hukum atau teori yang disusun Memiliki kemampuan prediksi

BANYAKNYA KASUS … In a recent Harvard Medical School study of 16,000 children aged nine to 14, 24 per cent of those who dined daily with their family got the recommended five servings of fruits … (Reader’s Digest, Dec., 2001, p. 136) … In animal studies, the form of vitamin A called retinol can slow bone growth, so researches at Harvard Medical School decided to check dietary levels of the vitamin in 72,337 women in the Nurses’ Health Study. … (Reader’s Digest, July, 2002, p. 19). … the scientists at the Harvard School of Public Health followed 2419 diabetic men over ten-year period. They discovered that those who drank … (Reader’s Digest, July, 2002, p. 19) … The latest evidence comes from the Physician’s Health study, a long term analysis of the diet, health and exercise habits of 22,000 doctors Researchers at the Havard Medical School found that … (Reader’s Digest, November 2002, p. 17)

… In an analysis of the health habits of 72,488 nurses over the past 14 years, researchers from the Harvard School of Public Health recently found that those who walked six or more hours per week decreased by 40 per cent their risk of suffering strokes caused by a clot. … (Reader’s Digest, December 2002, p. 106) ...Figure presents empirical ICCs for several other SAT-V items obtained from the responses of the 49,470 examinees described previously. … (Charles L. Hulin, et al. Item Response Theory, p. 21) … Figure presents the empirical ICC for the item “pleasant” based on the responses of 3,812 workers. … (Hulin, op. Cit.., p. 23) … Doctors at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm charted the health, lifestyle and diet of 3136 pair of male twins during 30-year period up to 1997 and tracked the progress of 466 men diagnosed with prostrate cancer … (Reader’s Digest, November 2002, p. 18)

… A recent study at the Dartmouth Medical School in Hanover, New Hampshire, followed 1121 people who had one or more adenomas (precancerous polyps) removed from the large bowel. … (Reader’s Digest, October 2002, p. 20) … Researchers at the National Public Health Institute in Helsinki, Finland, measured the rheumatoid factor--an immune protein present in three-quarters of patients with rheumatism--in 7,000 people with no clinical evidence of arthritis and analyses their coffee habits. … (Reader’s Digest, August 2002, p. 19) … Researchers analyzing the data from studies involving more 10,000 women who took alendronate or raloxifene found that very small percentage of the women appeared to lose BMD over the first year … (Reader’s Digest, August 2002, p. 20) … U.S. researchers with Framingham Heart Study in Boston tracked 6,859 people with normal blood pressure for 12 years … (Reader’s Digest, May 2002, p. 20)

… according to a Tuft University survey
… according to a Tuft University survey. Scientists tested blood of 2,999 participants; … (Reader’s Digest, March 2002, p. 132) … Doctors at the National Eye Institute in America ranked 3,640 patients by the stage of their disease; early … (Reader’s Digest, April 2002, p. 20) … Brenda Pennix, a gerontologist at Wake Forest University, North Carolina, and colleagues follows 2,847 people over the age of 55--both with and without heart disease--for four years to trace the effects of depression. … (Reader’s Digest, February 2002, p. 19)

Logika Induktif Induktivisme
Pengujian Hukum atau teori yang diturunkan secara induktif perlu diuji (biasanya diuji terus menerus, apa lagi ketika ditemukan kondisi atau cara atau alat baru) Pengujian terjadi pada penelitian yang menggunakan hukum dan teori ini Kelemahan Induktivisme Mungkin saja ada kekeliruan pada observasi Observasi perlu dibantu dengan teori lain, sedangkan teori lain mungkin saja keliru Terjadi lompatan dari kasus ke generalisasi

Logika Deduktif dan Induktif Kekeliruan pada Logika
Jenis Kekeliruan Ada 16 kekeliruan psikologi Ada 13 kekeliruan materi Ada 9 kekeliruan logika Total ada 38 kekeliruan Kekeliruan Psikologi (1) Personal Attack: Ad Hominem Argument seeking to discredit the source of argument by charging irrelevant personal shortcomings (2) Damning the Origin, Ceremony, and Setting “Damning the origin” suggests dismissing argument because the origin is unimpressive--e.g., inexperienced, unsuccessful, radical, and so on. “Ceremony” and “Setting” refer to psychological influence these factors have in swaying the audience’s receptiveness toward argument

(3) Misuse of Authority An authority is qualified only if it meets all of the following requirements: (1) identification by name, (2) recognition by others in the field, (3) current in the sense of not obsolete, (4) opinion expressed within the authority’s field. A misuse of authority is an invitation ot accept as authority a source lacking any of these qualifications (4) Impressing by Large Numbers: Bandwagon Citing as argument the belief of numbers of people who are not specially qualified to judge the problem (5) Appeal to Tradition: Tried and True Repeating the tradition and implying that departure therefrom would be scandalous without showing why the tradition should be followed on its merits. (6) Popular Appeals: Ad Populum Argument Seeking to gain support by announcing agreement with ideas that are popular with the audience

(7) Forestalling Disagreement: Poisoning the Well Presenting argument in a way that makes disagreement embarrassing (8) Creating Misgivings Playing on fears by making unfounded innuendos or distorted charges, or by exaggerating dangers and difficulties (9) Appeal to Pathetic Circumstances: Crybaby Seeking to influence action by pointing to personal hardship either in a way that is overdrawn or in a situation in which personal circumstances are beside the point (10) The Argument from Ignorance Arguing that since something cannot be proved, the opposite should be taken to be true (11) Misuse of Humor and Ridicule: Lost in the Laugh Distracting thought with humor and ridicule

(12) Obfuscation, Pettifogging, and Clamorous Insistence on Irrelevancies These fallacies do not define neatly. Unclear discussion and urging trivial matters will obscure argument whether intended to do so or not (13) The Barrage of Objections and the Call for Perfection Overemphasis on objections makes a distorted argument. A call for perfection suggests that practical action should await ideal conditions or that a solution should await the perfection of human beings themselves (14) Pointing to Another Wrong Claiming that one wrong justifies another wrong. Where the actions are related the situation may be murky

(15) Argument of the Club: Argumentum ad Baculum Substituting a threat, either of physical harm or of loss of some other interest for argument (16) Emotive Language: Colored Words The connotative suggestions of words, rhythm, and dramatic arrangement in sentences often sway the reception of argument. Fallacy exists wherever these factors influence thought Kekeliruan Materi (17) Faulty Generalization 1. Hasty generalization rests on too few cases 2. Unrepresentative generalization rests on cases that are not typical (18) Assuming the Cause: Post Hoc Reasoning Taking the mere fact that one event precedes another as a sufficient proof of causal relationship

(19) Misuse of Hypothesis Contrary to Fact treating as certain the outcome of a hypothetical situation when in fact the outcome is subject to a reasonable doubt (20) Fallacious Extension An extension is fallacious where the extended position does not fairly come under the argument originally stated. Note that an extension is legitimate when the argument involves a principle that must apply to the extended position also (21) False Analogy A comparison of things or situations that lack essential similarity within the area compared may be made for the purpose of illustration. It is a fallacy to suggest such a comparison as a support for argument

(22) Composition and Division] The fallacy of composition assumes that the characteristics of the parts will be found in the whole to which they contribute the fallacy of division assumes that the characteristics of an organized whole will be possessed by each part (23) False Dilemma A dilemma is false when there are more alternatives than it proposes, or when one of the alternatives is not a disadvantage (24) Black-or-white Fallacy: The Great Either … or This is presenting a situation in simple all-or-nothing terms when there are other possibilities in between

(25) Argument on the Beard: One More Doesn’t Matter When a line has to be drawn in a continuum, it is a fallacy to either ridicule the fine distinctions that necessarily result or to argue that “one more doesn’t matter.” One may argue properly that the cutoff point in the continuum is a poor choice or that circumstances make it desirable to depart form the rule (26) Leading Questions A leading question is calculated to influence the answer (27) Begging the Question A question is begged by assuming what should be proved (28) Oversimplification: Tabloid Thinking When a complicated situation is presented in simple assertions to the point of serious inaccuracy there is simplification

Logiak deduktif dan Induktif Kekeliruan pada Logika
(29) Word Magic Assuming that words or phrases assure the existence of the notions they describe Kekeliruan Logika (30) Fallacy of Four Terms Violating the rule that “a categorical syllogism must have exactly three terms, each used exactly twice.” (31) Fallacy of Faulty Exclusions Violating the rule that “a categorical syllogism must either have no exclusion or two exclusions, one of which must appear in the conclusion.” (32) Fallacy of the Undistributed Middle Term Violating the rule that “the middle term of a categorical syllogism must be distributed at least once.”

Logika Deduktif dan Induktif Kekeliruan Logika
(33) Fallacy of Illicit Distribution Violating the rule that “any term distributed in the conclusion of a categorical syllogism must be distributed in the premise where it appears.” (34) False Conversion Violating either of the rules for conversion produces a false conversion. The rules are: 1. The converse must retain the same quality as the original--I.e., both affirmative or both negative 2. No tem may be distributed in the converse unless it was distributed in the original (35) False Obversion Violating either of the rules for obversion produces a false obversion. The rules are: 1. An inclusion in the original is changed to an exclusion, or vice versa 2. The second term is negated

(36) Invalid Hypothetical syllogism Any violation of the rules for the hypothetical syllogism is a fallacy. The most important rule for a valid hypothetical is that the minor premise must affirm the antecedent or deny the consequent (37) Invalid Disjunctive syllogism Any violation of the rules for the disjunctive syllogism is a fallacy. The important rule for a valid disjunctive is that the minor premise must affirm one disjunct (38) Invalid Alternative syllogism any violation of the rules for alternative syllogism is a fallacy. The important rule for a valid alternative syllogism is that the minor premise must deny one alternative

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