Victims and Victimization Heru Susetyo, SH. LL.M. M.Si. Ph.D Fakultas Hukum Universitas Indonesia hsusetyo@ui.ac.id Fakultas Hukum Universitas Indonesia - Veritas Probitas Justitia

Perkenalan : Heru Susetyo Staf pengajar tetap Fakultas Hukum Universitas Indonesia, Depok Tinggal di Srengseng Sawah, Jakarta Selatan dengan istri dan empat anak Manajer Kerjasama, Ventura & Hubungan Alumni FHUI Ketua Bidang Pendidikan Lanjutan DPN PERADI Pendidikan : SH FHUI (1990) Diploma Administrasi Niaga Politeknik UI (1995) M.Si Kes-sos FISIP UI (1999) LL.M. Int Human Rights Northwestern, Chicago (2002) Ph.D. Human Rights & Peace Mahidol,Bangkok (2007) Ext.PhD Student in Victimology, Tilburg Netherlands (ongoing)

Kiprah di Bidang Viktimologi Staf pengajar tetap Fakultas Hukum Universitas Indonesia, Depok. Belajar dan mengajar dalam Victimology Course di Tokiwa University, Mito – Japan, pada tahun 2005, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2013 dan 2014 Mengajar di Victim Assistance Seminar, Bogota – Colombia, June 2013 mengajar di Victimology Course di University of Free State @Bloemfontein South Africa pada August 2016 mengikuti dan menjadi presenter pada World Society of Victimology Symposium di Mito-Japan (2009), Den Haag – The Netherlands (2012) dan di Perth, Australia (2015). Pada tahun 2009 sampai dengan 2015 menjadi Member of Executive Committee World Society of Victimology mewakili regional Asia Tenggara dan Indonesia. Menjadi salah satu pendiri Masyarakat Viktimologi Indonesia pada 18 Juli 2011. Sejak tahun 2012 melakukan riset (sebagai external PhD student) pada Tilburg University, The Netherlands Fakultas Hukum Universitas Indonesia - Veritas Probitas Justitia

‘korban’ menurut Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power tahun 1985 adalah : 1. "Victims" means persons who, individually or collectively, have suffered harm, including physical or mental injury, emotional suffering, economic loss or substantial impairment of their fundamental rights, through acts or omissions that are in violation of criminal laws operative within Member States, including those laws proscribing criminal abuse of power.

Victims Individual Kolektif

Victims Physical Mental Emotional Economic Loss

2. A person may be considered a victim, under this Declaration, regardless of whether the perpetrator is identified, apprehended, prosecuted or convicted and regardless of the familial relationship between the perpetrator and the victim. The term "victim" also includes, where appropriate, the immediate family or dependents of the direct victim and persons who have suffered harm in intervening to assist victims in distress or to prevent victimization.

pengertian ‘korban’ menurut draft UN Convention on Justice and Support for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power yang disusun oleh World Society of Victimology , adalah : Article 1 Definitions (1) ‘Victims’ means natural persons who, individually or collectively, have suffered harm including physical or mental injury, emotional suffering or economic loss or violations of fundamental rights in relation to victimizations identified under ‘scope’. (2) A person is a victim regardless of whether the crime is reported to the police, regardless of whether a perpetrator is identified, apprehended, prosecuted or convicted and regardless of the familial relationship between the perpetrator and the victim. The term ‘victims’ also includes, where appropriate, the immediate family or dependants of the direct victims and persons who have suffered in intervening to assist victims in distress or to prevent victimization.

Pengertian yang lain tentang ‘korban’ dari European Union Council Framework Decision of 15 March 2001 on the standing of victims in criminal proceedings (2001/220/JHA) adalah : (a) "victim" shall mean a natural person who has suffered harm, including physical or mental injury, emotional suffering or economic loss, directly caused by acts or omissions that are in violation of the criminal law of a Member State;

Batasan tentang korban dalam UU Perlindungan Saksi dan Korban No Batasan tentang korban dalam UU Perlindungan Saksi dan Korban No. 13 tahun 2006 jo UU No. 31 tahun 2014 juga masih terbatas pada korban kejahatan. Korban disebutkan sebagai orang yang mengalami penderitaan fisik, mental, dan/atau kerugian ekonomi yang diakibatkan oleh suatu tindak pidana.

Siapa Korban tergantung konstruksi masyarakat Jaco Barkhuizen (2007) menyebutkan bahwa Victims are socially constructed, it is not sufficient that persons claim the status of victims without sufficient social acknowledgement (social construction of reality) (Kirchhoff and Morosawa, 2009).

Jessica dan Media

Media membentuk Korban Davies, Francis dan Greer (2007) menyebutkan bahwa : The role of news media in constructing and (mis)representing victims of crime and victimization. While the media do not necessarily tell us what to think, they can tell us what to think about. They are of fundamental importance to those who would promote a particular view of crime victims and victimization, or seek to challenge or change existing views.

The ‘problem of crime’, as many have pointed out, is a socially constructed problem. What we mean by this is that, since most people have little firsthand experience of crime and victimization, we are reliant on other sources of information for much of our knowledge about it. Few of these are more important than the media. Media representations influence what the issues of crime and victimization ‘mean’ to people. They help to socially construct these issues by presenting particular ‘views of reality’. There is no necessary connection, however, between what is presented in the media and what is happening ‘in the real world’. The issues of crime and victimization, then, are highly mediatized issues

Liputan media yang begitu massif terhadap kasus Jessica-Mirna (kasus es kopi Vietnam yang diduga berisi sianida pada 6 Januari 2916) di Jakarta Pusat ini adalah salah satu contoh bagaimana kuatnya cengkeraman media dalam membentuk opini di masyarakat. Sehingga pakar maupun masyarakat-pun sedikit banyak terpengaruh dan menciptakan opini sendiri-sendiri tentang peradilan Jessica yang berpotensi melanggar asas praduga tak bersalah (presumption of innocence).

Victim Vulnerability & Victims Culpability Kumaravelu Chocklingam (2009) menyebutkan bahwa studi tentang hubungan antara korban dan pelaku kejahatan adalah salah satu focus dari viktimologi di awal berkembangnya ilmu ini. Ada dua aspek penting yang dikaji yaitu : the study of victim vulnerability and the study of victim culpability (studi tentang tingkat kerentanan dan tingkat kealpaan korban)

Beberapa kelompok yang oleh Hans von Hentig (dalam Chockalingam, 2009) disebutkan memiliki tingkat kerentanan (vulnerability) adalah : The young (kaum muda), The female (perempuan) The old (kalangan lanjut usia), The mentally defective and deranged (orang dengan keterbelakangan atau gangguan mental), Immigrants (imigran), Minorities (minoritas), Dull normal (orang malas/ kurang berpendidikan), The depressed (orang yang mengalami depresi), The acquisitive (orang serakah), The wanton (orang yang nakal/ melawan peraturan), The lonesome and the heartbroken (penyendiri dan orang yang patah hati), The tormentor (penyiksa), The blocked, exempted, or fighting (orang yang terisolasi/ tersisihkan).

Klafisikasi Mendelsohn 1956 pada tahun 1956 Mendelsohn menyusun 6 (enam) tahapan klasifikasi dari korban terkait dengan tingkat kebersalahan-nya dalam suatu tindak pidana, yaitu sebagai berikut (Chockalingam, 2009) : The first category of the typology of Mendelsohn was the “completely innocent victim”. This victim type according to him exhibited no provocative behavior prior to the offender’s attack. The second type, namely “victims with minor guilt” or “victims due to ignorance” did something inadvertently that placed them in a compromising position before the occurrence of victimization. His third category was “victim as guilty as the offender” and the “voluntary victim”. Suicide cases and parties injured while engaging in vice crimes and other “victimless offenses” fell under this category.

Mendelssohn’s fourth type “victim more guilty than the offender” represents the situation in which the victim instigates or provokes the criminal act. A person who is on the losing end of a punch after making an abusive remark would fit in here. Similarly, a victim who started as an offender and, ended up as victim is “the most guilty victim”. An example of this category would be the burglar shot by a house owner during an intrusion. The last category is the “simulating or imaginary victim”. Mendelsohn reserves this niche for persons who pretend that they have been victimized. The person who claims to have been mugged, rather than admitting to gambling his or her pay cheque away would be an example.

Marvin E. Wolfgang (Chockalingam, 2009) Marvin E. Wolfgang (Chockalingam, 2009). Ia melahirkan konsep victim precipitation alias seseorang atau kelompok menjadi korban kejahatan karena ia atau mereka sendiri berkontribusi dalam tingkatan tertentu untuk terjadinya kejahatan tersebut. Wolfgang melakukan penelitian terhadap korban-korban pembunuhan di Philadelphia dan melahirkan definisi sebagai berikut : “The term victim-precipitation is applied to those criminal homicides in which the victim is a direct, positive precipitator in the crime. The role of the victim is characterized by his having been the first in the homicide drama to use physical force directed against his subsequent slayer.

Viktimisasi “...Victimization often causes trauma and depending upon the level of trauma that a person has already experienced in their lifetime, crime can be devastating. In general, victimization often impacts people on an emotional, physical, financial, psychological, and social level...” Suatu tindak kejahatan dapat melahirkan trauma dan penderitaan bagi korban. Apakah penderitaan secara fisik, emosi, finansial, psikologis maupun secara sosial.

Viktimisasi (2) Viktimisasi adalah jauh lebih luas dari semata-mata tindak pidana. Karena terjadinya korban adalah tidak semua karena tindak pidana. Bisa karena bencana alam, bencana lingkungan, bencana teknologi, penyalahgunaan kekuasaan (abuse of power), pelanggaran HAM (human rights violation) yang tidak terumuskan sebagai tindak pidana, dan lain sebagainya. Dan viktimologi adalah concern dengan korban dan proses terjadinya korban. Apakah sebabnya karena tindak pidana atau sebab-sebab non tindak pidana bukan suatu hal yang signifikan.

Pendapat terakhir tersebut paling tidak diacu oleh Beniamin Mendelsohn, Gerd Kirchhoff dan Hidemichi Morosawa (dalam Susetyo, 2012) yang memperkenalkan General Victimology, karena sarjana lain, sebutlah seperti Ezzat Fattah (dalam Susetyo, 2012) lebih meyakini bahwa viktimologi hanya tertarik dengan korban tindak pidana, alias Penal Victimology, lain tidak.

Selain viktimisasi, istilah yang juga harus dipahami adalah viktimisasi kedua atau lanjutan alias ‘secondary victimization’ ataupun juga reviktimisasi, yang bermakna

Secondary victimization refers to the victimization which occurs, not as a direct result of the criminal act, but through the response of institutions and individuals to the victim.

The following are a few examples of secondary victimization: The refusal to recognize their experience as criminal victimization; Intrusive or inappropriate conduct by police or other criminal justice personnel; The whole process of criminal investigation and trial (decisions about whether or not to prosecute, the trial itself, the sentencing of the offender, and his or her eventual release) The victim perceives difficulties in balancing their rights with those of the accused or the offender; Criminal justice processes and procedures do not take the perspective of the victim into account.

Media and Victimization By : Heru Susetyo, SH. LL.M. M.Si. Ph.D Faculty of Law Universitas Indonesia hsusetyo@ui.ac.id JCLEC, Semarang, July 2016

What is Victimizaton Victimology is interested in the process of becoming a victim (which social, group, institutional and individual conditions lead to these processes?) > victimization. Victimology looks at reactions, reactions to victims and reactions to victimization. (Kirchhoff, 2005).

Victims of Media Individual Group Govt Corporations

Who are Victimizers? INDIVIDUAL GROUP STATE CORPORATION/ MNC MEDIA

Any tool of technology used for sending and/or receiving messages M.E.D.I.A Any tool of technology used for sending and/or receiving messages

Conventional to New Media

MEDIA-BIASED

HISTORY OF INSENSITIVE The media, whether it is newspaper, radio, or television, has a history of insensitive treatment toward victims. http://www.victimsofviolence.on.ca/research-library/media-and-victimization/

MEDIA INSENSITIVE Photos of a victim’s blood on the street, images of body bags, and TV cameras at funerals trying to interview grieving parents are all things that happen too often. http://www.victimsofviolence.on.ca/research-library/media-and-victimization/

Post Aceh Tsunami-Earthquake 2004

Do we really need to see these images? Does hearing the gory details of a brutal murder enhance our understanding of the story or its larger issues? Probably not, yet these are images we are inundated with daily. http://www.victimsofviolence.on.ca/research-library/media-and-victimization/

Media Effects While some victims report a favorable experience with the media, other victims describe a painful and draining experience. The sensitivity the victim receives will of course depend on the individual(s) the victim has to deal with. The media can intensify the feelings of violation and the loss of control that many victims feel. http://www.victimsofviolence.on.ca/research-library/media-and-victimization/

Not just common people…

Some of the most common complaints from victims concerning media are: interviews at inappropriate times, such as at funerals, footage/photographs of crime scenes, interviewing/photographing child victims, naming the victim and providing access to them, discussion of gruesome details, http://www.victimsofviolence.on.ca/research-library/media-and-victimization/

Being interviewed three days after her husband found killed

Being interviewed three days after her husband found killed

Some of the most common complaints from victims concerning media are: inappropriate/aggressive questioning, printing information that would negatively impact the victim’s credibility, glorifying the violent act or the offender and, blaming the victim for the crime. http://www.victimsofviolence.on.ca/research-library/media-and-victimization/

GLORIFICATION

Faculty of Law Universitas Indonesia #veritas #probitas #iustitia Commercial : Fashion Competition Resembling Terrorist Wives (Depok, 31/5/20150 Faculty of Law Universitas Indonesia #veritas #probitas #iustitia

There is no need for any of these things There is no need for any of these things. News reports should print the substantiated facts. Does the public really have the right to know the specific details of a murder victim’s last moments alive? How will this better their understanding of the crime that has been committed? http://www.victimsofviolence.on.ca/research-library/media-and-victimization/

Victims’ Rights Victims deserve to have some rights when it comes to contact with the media. In fact, the media has no formal training or policy designed to teach reporters and photographers how to approach victims appropriately. http://www.victimsofviolence.on.ca/research-library/media-and-victimization/

say no to interviews if the victim so wishes, Some of the rights that victims should have available to them during their dealings with the media include the right to: grieve in private, say no to interviews if the victim so wishes, select a spokesperson/advocate to deal with the media, select the time and place for any interviews, request a specific reporter, refuse a specific reporter, http://www.victimsofviolence.on.ca/research-library/media-and-victimization/

release a written statement in lieu of an interview, exclude children from interviews or harassment, refuse to answer any questions or avoid any topic, demand a correction when a mistake is made; ask that cameras/reporters not attend a funeral or the victim’s home, or show offensive images on television. None of these rights would interfere with the media’s ability to get the basic facts about a news story. The public and the truth would not suffer due to these rights. http://www.victimsofviolence.on.ca/research-library/media-and-victimization/

What Should media do to victims present both sides of the story fairly, treat the victim(s) with respect and dignity, avoid gruesome/inappropriate photos, leave the families alone while they are grieving, i.e. funerals, respect their privacy and wishes, do not humiliate or paint the victim in a bad light just to create news, do not glorify/sensationalize violence, leave graphic details out, do not show the victims blood or a body bag. http://www.victimsofviolence.on.ca/research-library/media-and-victimization/

The Media and the Accused Person It is also important to recognize that the media impacts those accused of crime, and can even affect whether or not they can receive fair trials. The accused has the right to be presumed innocent and to be tried by an “independent and impartial tribunal.” The accused person’s right to a fair trial is one of the few rights that outweigh the freedom of the press and rightly so. http://www.victimsofviolence.on.ca/research-library/media-and-victimization/

Crime in the News One reason that is almost always cited for the inclusion of crime details and personal information (either positive or negative) about the victim or offender is that it gives the story newsworthiness. http://www.victimsofviolence.on.ca/research-library/media-and-victimization/

Crime in the News (2) Media outlets include the graphic details of a crime because they add “sensation” to the story and therefore make the story more likely to sell. For example, when a child is the victim of a crime, the story automatically becomes more newsworthy because children are not as likely as young adults to be victimized, and the emotional reaction leads to more interest for news. When a crime is particularly heinous or brutal, or if there were multiple victims, the media is more likely to report it. http://www.victimsofviolence.on.ca/research-library/media-and-victimization/

The press is prohibited from reporting the details of some cases, particularly the names of child victims and witnesses and adult sexual assault victims. This is done to protect the victims. If the offender’s identify would lead to the identification of the victim (i.e. father-daughter incest), the offender’s name may not be published either.

VICTIM BLAMING (1) Sometimes, the details that are reported about a crime, the offender, and the victim seem to infer that the victim was in some way responsible for their own victimization. Sexual assault is a crime for which the victim may be perceived as guilty as the offender.

VICTIM BLAMING (2) One study (Costa & Anastasio, 2004) found that they way the media reports on crime affects the reader’s feelings of empathy or blame towards the victim. These researchers state that reporting details about what a victim was wearing or their height and weight trivializes their victimization and implies that the victim had in some way instigated the crime against them. Mentioning that a woman had endured years of abuse by her husband prior to him murdering her prompts blame of the victim because she failed to leave the abusive situation earlier.

Over exposure to Sex Sex is everywhere today, and it pollutes the minds of children and teenagers before they should even be exposed to certain forms of it. Why is sex found all over the media? Because sex sells. The media use sex as an appetitive appeal to make products more attractive. A vast majority of magazine ads, commercials and billboards use half-naked women or other sexual images/messages as devices to catch the public eye and make products more appealing. https://amphilpott.wordpress.com/2011/03/29/youth-tainted-by-overexposure-to-sex-in-the-media/

New Challenge Overexposed in Social Media Own Media Video Blog #Awkarin Phenomenon

Indonesian Laws related to protection from illicit media/ information

UU Perlindungan Anak No. 23 tahun 2002 jo UU No. 35/ 2014 Pasal 10 : Setiap anak berhak menyatakan dan didengar pendapatnya, menerima, mencari, dan memberikan informasi sesuai dengan tingkat kecerdasan dan usianya demi pengembangan dirinya sesuai dengan nilai-nilai kesusilaan dan kepatutan.

UU Pers No. 40 tahun 1999 Pasal 5 : Pers nasional berkewajiban memberikan peristiwa dan opini dengan menghormati norma-norma agama dan rasa kesusilaan masyarakat serta asas praduga tak bersalah. Pasal 13 Perusahaan Pers dilarang memuat iklan :

UU Pers No. 40 tahun 1999 Pasal 13 Perusahaan Pers dilarang memuat iklan : Yang berakibat merendahkan martabat suatu agama dan atau mengganggu kerukunan hidup antar umat beragama serta bertentangan dengan rasa kesusilaan masyarakat; Minuman keras dan NAPZA; Peragaan wujud rokok dan atau penggunaan rokok.

UU Penyiaran No. 32 tahun 2002 Isi Siaran Pasal 36 (1) Isi siaran wajib mengandung informasi , pendidikan, hiburan, dan manfaat untuk pembentukan intelektualitas, watak, moral, kemajuan, kekuatan bangsa, menjaga persatuan dan kesatuan, serta mengamalkan nilai-nilai agama dan budaya Indonesia.

UU Penyiaran No. 32 tahun 2004 Pasal 36 ayat (3) : Isi siaran wajib memberikan perlindungan dan pemberdayaan kepada khalayak khusus, yaitu anak-anak dan remaja dengan menyiarkan mata acara pada waktu yang tepat , dan lembaga penyiaran wajib mencantumkan dan/ atau menyebutkan klasifikasi khalayak sesuai dengan isi siaran.

Hak atas Media Sehat vs Hak Atas Informasi Konvensi Hak Anak Pasal 13 (1) Anak harus memiliki hak atas kebebasan mengeluarkan pendapat, hak ini mencakup kebebasan mencari, menerima dan memberikan informasi dan semua macam pemikiran tanpa memperhatikan perbatasan, baik secara lisan dalam bentuk tertulis maupun cetak, dalam bentuk seni, atau melalui media lain apapun pilihan anak

Konvensi Hak Anak (Convention on the Rights of The Child) Pasal 13 ayat (2) : Pelaksanaan hak ini dapat tunduk pada pembatasan-pembatasan tertentu, tapi hanya akan seperti ditentukan oleh UU dan diperlukan : Untuk menghormati hak-hak atau nama baik orang-orang lain; atau Untuk perlindungan keamanan nasional atau ketertiban umum, atau kesehatan atau kesusilaan umum.

Konvensi Hak Anak (Convention on the Rights of The Child) Pasal 17: Negara-negara pihak mengakui fungsi penting yang dilakukan media massa dan harus menjamin bahwa anak mempunyai akses ke informasi dan bahan dari suatu diversitas sumber-sumber nasional dan internasional; terutama yang ditujukan pada peningkatan kesejahteraan sosial, spiritual dan kesusilaannya dan kesehatan fisik dan mentalnya. Untuk tujuan ini maka negara-negara pihak harus :

(Convention on the Rights of The Child) Pasal 17 (a) Mendorong media massa untuk menyebarluaskan informasi dan bahan yang mempunyai manfaat sosial dan budaya…; Pasal 17 (e) Mendorong perkembangan pedoman-pedoman yang tepat untuk perlindungan anak dari informasi dan bahan yang merusak kesejahteraannya…

P3 & SPS Sejatinya rambu-rambu dan koridor untuk menangkal bahaya viktimisasi tersebut telah tersedia. Yaitu Kode Etik Jurnalistik dan P3SPS alias dua Peraturan Komisi Penyiaran Indonesia (KPI) tahun 2012 tentang Pedoman Perilaku Penyiaran (P3) dan Standar Program Siaran (SPS).  

Kode Etik Jurnalistik Kode Etik Jurnalistik tahun 2006 antara lain menyebutkan bahwa wartawan haruslah menunjukkan sikap profesionalisme, antara lain dengan menghormati pengalaman traumatik narasumber dalam penyajian gambar, foto, tidak menyebutkan dan menyiarkan identitas korban kejahatan susila dan tidak menyebutkan identitas anak yang menjadi pelaku kejahatan.

Peliputan terorisme dalam P3SPS P3SPS menyebutkan bahwa dalam peliputan terorisme lembaga penyiaran wajib menghormati hak masyarakat untuk memperoleh informasi secara lengkap dan benar; namun juga tidak melakukan labelisasi berdasarkan suku, agama, ras, dan/atau antargolongan terhadap pelaku, kerabat, dan/atau kelompok yang diduga terlibat; dan tidak membuka dan/atau mendramatisir identitas kerabat pelaku yang diduga terlibat.

Peliputan kasus yang melibatkan anak-anak lembaga penyiaran tidak boleh mewawancarai anak-anak dan/atau remaja berusia di bawah umur 18 tahun mengenai hal-hal di luar kapasitas mereka untuk menjawabnya, seperti: kematian, perceraian, perselingkuhan orangtua dan keluarga, serta kekerasan, konflik, dan bencana yang menimbulkan dampak traumatik. Serta, wajib mempertimbangkan keamanan dan masa depan anak-anak dan/ atau remaja yang menjadi narasumber; dan wajib menyamarkan identitas anak-anak dan/atau remaja dalam peristiwa dan/atau penegakan hukum, baik sebagai pelaku maupun korban.

Respon media India terhadap Perkosaan New Delhi 16 Des 2012 Tidak sedikitpun menyebutkan identitas korban, kecuali hanya : seorang mahasiswa fisioterapi di satu kampus di New Delhi berusia 23 tahun… Tidak sedikitpun menyajikan foto korban dalam bentuk apapun

Indonesian Media

Dampak Pemberitaan Terorisme (1) Kebingungan masyarakat (pejabat publik berselisih, pengamat berkomentar, aparat berbeda respon) Glorifikasi > lahir pahlawan palsu (pseudo heroism) Stigmatisasi (Sapto Waluyo, Kontra Terorisme, 2009 : 64 – 67)

Dampak Pemberitaan Terorisme (2) (Wawan Purwanto, Satu Dasawarsa Terorisme di Indonesia, 2012 : 203 - 220) Media massa terlalu responsif dan agresif, namun seringkali kurang akurat Terjebak glorifikasi Ketidakjelasan paradigma pemberitaan (studi kasus di US, Fox News lebih angkat sisi kontra terorisme, sementar NBC lebih mengangkat sisi korban terorisme – Andi Widjajanto)

Dampak Pemberitaan Terorisme (3) Terkadang tersangka teroris sendiri yang ‘narsis’ dan media ‘membeli/ bekerjasama’ dengan mereka. Perspektif dan penderitaan korban kurang terlihat, Zainal Abidin (dalam Wawan Purwanto, 2012) menyebutkan bahwa pemberitaan dengan tema dampak korban akibat teror akan menimbulkan efek kepada masyarakat bahwa tindakan pelaku melukai kemanusiaan.

Dampak Pemberitaan Terorisme (4) Ekspos kekerasan secara berlebihan, menimbulkan ketakutan kepada masyarakat Karena sisi korban kurang diangkat, maka pemberitaan ttg terorisme seringkali memupus rasa kemanusiaan. Konteks waktu pemberitaan ‘yang mencurigakan’, ada anggapan sebagai pengalihan isu.

Terimakasih banyak Thank you so much