Effective Teaching Method

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1 Effective Teaching Method
Training Asisten – Effective Teaching Method Pembekalan Asisten dan Asisten Lab Baru Departemen Akuntansi 2012 Dwi Martani Ketua Departemen Akuntansi FEUI

2 Agenda 1 Karir Akuntansi 2 Kurikulum dan Kompetensi
Bagaimana Efektif Mengajarkan 3

3 Asisten Lab  Asisten Dosen  Dosen Syarat Dosen
Karir Asisten Asisten Lab  Asisten Dosen  Dosen Syarat Dosen S2 bidang Akuntansi – luar negeri Diangkat untuk menjadi dosen tetap  S3 Dosen UI Karir untuk menjadi dosen tetap  kurang jelas Dosen full time  basis di UI namun tetap dapat menjalankan kegiatan lain tetapi tidak full time

4 Aktivitas dosen  melaksanakan tridarma perguruan tinggi
Pendidikan  mengajar, menguji, membimbing, menulis buku ajar, mendampingi kegiatan mahasiswa Penelitian  publikasi jurnal, conference, tulisan ilmiah lain Pengabdian masyarakat  training, konsultasi, kajian regulasi negara Kegiatan lain  panitia, peserta seminar

5 Jenjang jabatan akademik
Kepangkatan Dosen Jenjang jabatan akademik Asisten ahli Lektor Lektor Kepala Profesor  850 Jenjang kepangkatan IIIB, IIIC, IIID IVA, IVB, IVC, IVD

6 Strategi SDM Departemen
Persyaratan dosen  S2 Luar Negeri Kondisi tertentu  S2 DN, S3 LN S2 DN dan S3 DN dengan reputasi sangat baik Kualifikasi  Berkinerja baik dalam menjalankan Tri Darma PT Memiliki pengalaman praktik melalui PPA, training, pengabdian masyarakat Memberikan kontribusi pada organisasi profesi, negara Dosen tidak tetap dipertahankan dengan jumlah minimal, memiliki reputasi praktik / riset

7 Proses Menjadi Dosen Asisten lab  Asisten Dosen  Dosen Asisten dosen  sekolah LN  Dosen Lulus  bekerja  sekola LN  Dosen Sekolah LN  proses kompetisi beasiswa Proses menunggu sekolah  bekerja di dalam kampus, atau bekerja di luar kampus Setelah sekolah  full time di kampus

8 Asistensi Mengembangkan kemampuan analisis dan aplikasi suatu pengetahuan  relevan dengan praktik. Membantu mengembangkan proffesional skill Intellectual skills Technical and functional skills  numeracy decision modeling and risk analysis, measurement, reporting, compliance with legislation Personal skills  self management, professional skepticism, decision making, initiative. Interpersonal and communication skills Organizational and business management skills

9 Asistensi Tidak mengulang teori yang diajarkan  cukup buatkan mind map / chart rangkuman materi yang harus dikuasai Berikan tips aspek teknis yang perlu pendalaman  silabus, bedakan yang penting dan kurang penting atau sekedar perlu. Fokus pada proses bukan hasil akhir Berikan kebebasan dalam melakukan proses  dipengaruhi oleh kemampuan mahasiswa Jalin komunikasi dengan dosen dan juga asisten Koordinasi dengan asisten yang lain termasuk dengan koordinator lab asisten

10 Tips Buat suasana kelas menarik
Siapkan penguasaan materi – mahasiswa pengin mengetahui sesuatu yang lain Pilih strategi di setiap pertemuan sehingga asistensi menjadi menarik Biarkan mahasiswa belajar dan mengerjakan sendiri Berperan sebagai fasilitator / teman Berikan penghargaan kepada mahasiswa  sopan, keinginan untuk membantu

11 KURIKULUM : SOFTWARE INPUT
PENDIDIKAN SEBAGAI SISTEM KURIKULUM : SOFTWARE INPUT SOFTWARE INPUT HARDWARE INPUT INPUT MAHASISWA PROSES BM OUTPUT LULUSAN EXTERNAL INPUT

12 Kurikulum Kurikulum merupakan rambu-rambu untuk menjamin mutu dan kemampuan sesuai dengan program yang ditempuh. Seperangkat rencana pengaturan berdasarkan standar pendidikan tentang kemampuan dan sikap serta pengalaman belajar dan penilaian yang berbasis pada potensi dan kondisi peserta didik. (SK Mendiknas 045U/2002) Seperangkat rencana dan pengaturan mengenai tujuan, isi bahan pelajaran serta cara yang digunakan sebagai pedoman penyelenggaraan kegiatan pembelajaran untuk mencapai tujuan pendidikan tertentu UU 20/2003 Sisdiknas

13 Kurikulum Alat untuk mencapai tujuan pendidikan
Kurikulum dirancang fleksibel agar tujuan pendidikan dapat dicapai dan mengantisipasi perubahan lingkungan. Bersumber pada visi, misi, tujuan dan strategi program studi. Bukan hanya komposisi dan susunan mata ajar tetapi meliputi tujuan, kompetensi yang akan dicapai, materi, metodologi dan evaluasi. Kurikulum dijabarkan dalam: Profil lulusan Kompetensi apa akan dicapai Susunan mata ajar dan peta mata ajar Buku rancangan pengajaran  silabus (untuk mahasiswa) Satuan Acara pengajaran

14 Pendekatan dalam Kurikulum
Structure of subject matter Content-based approach Content transmission

15 Pendekatan dalam Kurikulum
Lulusan harus menguasai subjek keilmuan, dengan asumsi akan menunjukkan kinerja yang lebih komprehensif setelah menguasai subjek ilmu Berorientasi pada penguasaan bidang ilmu Seringkali terjadi kesenjangan antara teori dan aplikasi praktek Kurikulum disusun berdasarkan asumsi dasar disiplin ilmu bukan berdasarkan kebutuhan dan harapan masyarakat Content-based approach

16 Pendekatan Kompetensi dalam Kurikulum
Integration Active learning Students/ professional needs Competency-based approach Contextual

17 Pendekatan dalam Kurikulum
Disusun berdasarkan tuntutan kompetensi lulusan yg dibutuhkan profesi dalam setting tertentu Asumsi : kemampuan kinerja tertentu dapat dicapai jika kualitas intelektual dibangun dengan dukungan materi tertentu Pendidikan : “eksperimen”, atau pengalaman belajar dalam setting (situasi dan kondisi) tertentu untuk mencapai kompetensi yang diharapkan. Competency-based approach

18 PERUBAHAN LUARAN PERGURUAN TINGGI
KEMAMPUAN MINIMAL PENGUASAAN PENGETAHUAN, KETRAMPILAN DAN SIKAP SESUAI SASARAN KURIKULUM PROGRAM STUDINYA KURNAS 1994 KBK 2000 KOMPETENSI SESEORANG UNTUK DAPAT MELAKUKAN TINDAKAN CERDAS, PENUH TANGGUNG JAWAB SEBAGAI SYARAT UNTUK DIANGGAP MAMPU OLEH MASYARAKAT DALAM MELAKSANAKAN TUGAS-TUGAS DI BIDANG PEKERJAAN TERTENTU PENILAIAN OLEH PERGURUAN TINGGI SENDIRI PENILAIAN DILAKUKAN OLEH MASYARAKAT PEMANGKU KEPENTINGAN

19 Ciri-ciri Kurikulum Berbasis Kompetensi
Menyatakan kompetensi secara jelas dari proses pembelajaran Proses pembelajaran memberi bekal kepada tercapainya kompetensi dan berfokus pada mahasiswa (Student Centered Learning) Mengutamakan kesatuan penguasaan ranah kognitif, psikomotorik dan afektif. Proses penilaian lebih ditekankan pada kemampuan untuk mendemonstrasikan kognitif, psikomotorik dan afektif.

20 Analisis Kebutuhan Lulusan Kebutuhan Stakeholders Lulusan Perguruan tinggi diharapkan mempunyai kompetensi ( 5 elemen kompetensi ) yang sesuai kebutuhan stakeholders , berupa : Kebutuhan masyarakat (societal needs) Kebutuhan dunia kerja (industrial needs) Kebutuhan profesional (professional needs) Kebutuhan generasi masa depan (aspek vision) Kebutuhan ilmu pengetahuan (aspek scientific)

21 KEPMENDIKNAS No. 232/U/2000 Pasal 1 dan 8:
Kelompok MPK (Pengembangan Kepribadian)  Kelompok bahan kajian dan pelajaran untuk mengembangkan manusia Indonesia yang beriman dan bertaqwa terhadap Tuhan Yang Maha Esa dan berbudi pekerti luhur, berkepribadian mantap, dan mandiri serta mempunyai rasa tanggung jawab kemasyarakatan dan kebangsaan. Kelompok MKK (Keilmuan dan Keterampilan)  Kelompok bahan kajian dan pelajaran yang ditujukan terutama untuk memberikan landasan penguasaan ilmu dan keterampilan tertentu. Kelompok MKB (Keahlian Berkarya)  Kelompok bahan kajian dan pelajaran yang bertujuan menghasil-kan tenaga ahli dengan kekaryaan berdasarkan dasar ilmu dan keterampilan yang dikuasai.

22 KEPMENDIKNAS No. 232/U/2000 Pasal 1 dan 8:
Kelompok MPB (Perilaku Berkarya)  Kelompok bahan kajian dan pelajaran yang bertujuan membentuk sikap dan perilaku yang diperlukan seseorang dalam berkarya menurut tingkat keahlian berdasarkan dasar ilmu dan keterampilan yang dikuasai. Kelompok MBB (Berkehidupan Bermasyarakat)  Kelompok bahan kajian dan pelajaran yang diperlukan seseorang untuk dapat memahami kaidah berkehidupan bermasyarakat sesuai dengan pilihan keahlian dalam berkarya.

23 TENTANG KURIKULUM INTI PENDIDIKAN TINGGI KURIKULUM INSTITUSIONAL
SK. MENDIKNAS RI NO. 045/U/2002 TENTANG KURIKULUM INTI PENDIDIKAN TINGGI ELEMEN KOMPETENSI KURIKULUM INTI KURIKULUM INSTITUSIONAL Kompetensi Utama Kompetensi Pendukung Kompetensi Lainnya 1. Landasan kepribadian. 40% - 80 % 20% - 40% 0% - 30% 2. Penguasaan ilmu dan ketrampilan. 3. Kemampuan berkarya. 4. Sikap dan perilaku dalam berkarya. 5. Pemahaman kaidah berkehidupan bermasyarakat. KOMPETENSI UTAMA ditetapkan oleh kalangan Perguruan Tinggi, masyarakat profesi dan pengguna lulusan. KOMPETENSI PENDUKUNG & KOMPETENSI LAINNYA ditetapkan oleh Institusi penyelenggara program studi Tim KBK DIKTI

24 International Education Standard

25 International Education Standard
IES 1: ENTRY REQUIREMENTS TO A PROGRAM OF PROFESSIONAL ACCOUNTING EDUCATION IES 2: CONTENT OF PROFESSIONAL ACCOUNTING EDUCATION PROGRAMS IES 3: PROFESSIONAL SKILLS IES 4: PROFESSIONAL VALUES ETHICS AND ATTITUDES IES 5: PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE REQUIREMENTS IES 6: ASSESSMENT OF PROFESSIONAL CAPABILITIES AND COMPETENCE IES 7: CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT: A PROGRAM OF LIFELONG LEARNING AND CONTINUING DEVELOPMENT OF PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE

26 International Education Standard
Tujuan: Meyakinkan bahwa calon akuntan profesional memiliki pengetahuan profesional akuntansi yang memadai utk menjalankan fungsinya dalam menghadapi lingkungan yang kompleks dan berubah

27 IES 2 Tiga bidang utama: Accounting, finance, and related knowledge
Organizational and business knowledge Information technology knowledge and competence

28 Accounting, finance, and related knowledge
financial accounting and reporting; management accounting and control; taxation; business and commercial law; audit and assurance; finance and financial management; and professional values and ethics.

29 Organizational and business knowledge
economics; business environment; corporate governance; business ethics; financial markets; quantitative methods; organizational behavior; management and strategic decision making; marketing; and international business and globalization.

30 Information technology knowledge and competence
general knowledge of IT; IT control knowledge; IT control competences; IT user competences; and one of, or a mixture of, the competences of, the roles of manager, evaluator or designer of information systems.

31 Skill – IES 3 The skills professional accountants require are grouped under five main headings: Intellectual skills Technical and functional skills  numeracy decision modeling and risk analysis, measurement, reporting, compliance with legislation Personal skills  self management, professional skepticism, decision making, initiative. Interpersonal and communication skills Organizational and business management skills

32 Value & Ethic – IES 4 the public interest and sensitivity to social responsibilities; continual improvement and lifelong learning; reliability, responsibility, timeliness, courtesy and respect; and laws and regulations.

33 KEAHLIAN SEORANG AKUNTAN
Analytical/critical thinking 4,53 Written communication 4,39 Oral communication 4,22 Computing technology 4,10 Decision making 4,03 Interpersonal skills 3,94 Continuous learning 3,82 Teamwork 3,81 Business decision modeling 3,65 Professional demeanor 3,64 Leadership 3,58 Risk Analysis 3,42 Measurement 3,32 Project management 3,26 Customer orientation 3,23 Change management 3,13 Negotiation 3,13 Research 3,08 Entrepreneurship 2,99 Resources Management 2,98 Salesmanship 2,61 Foreign language 2,60

34 Taksonomi Bloom

35 Taksonomi Bloom

36 Taksonomi Bloom

37 Effective Teaching

38 Looking at an exhibition Participating in a discussion
MODEL PEMBELAJARAN Verbal reciving Visual reciving Partici- pating Doing PASSIVE ACTIVE 10% Reading 20% Hearing words 30% Looking at picture Watching video Watching a demonstration Seeing it done on location Giving a talk Doing a Dramatic Presentation Simullating the Real Experience 50% Looking at an exhibition 70% Participating in a discussion Untuk menunjukkan bahwa dengan metode kuliah, pemahaman mahasiswa akan kurang dicapai 90% Doing the Real Thing TINGKAT MEMORISASI TINGKAT KETERLIBATAN

39 it is to make student learning possible”
What is Teaching ? “The aim of teaching is simple: it is to make student learning possible” Paul Ramsden, Learning to Teach in Higher Education, London, Routledge, 1992:5

40 Learning is a Social Process Learning Is A Form
Social Context Of Learning Learning Is A Form Of Social Interaction Learning Takes Place Within Learning Communities Learning Communities Consist Of Formal Dimensions Informal Dimensions

41 Strategies for Successful Trainings
Principles of Adult Learning. Active Learning. Instructional Strategies. Selected Strategies for Successful Trainings Principles of Adult Learning. Active Learning. Instructional Strategies.

42 Principles of Adult Learning
Need to know how adults learn best. Adult learners have special needs. Six characteristics of adult learners. Are autonomous and self-directed. Have a foundation of life experiences and knowledge. Are goal-oriented. Are relevancy-oriented. Are practical. Need to be shown respect. Principles of Adult Learning Need to know how adults learn best. Adult learners have special needs. Six characteristics of adult learners.

43 Learning Pyramid* 43 Ask: How many of you learn best through lecture?
This pyramid demonstrates the proportion of people who learn best from selected instructional methodologies. Most of us learn best when we’re actively involved in the learning process (discussion groups, practice, teaching others). 43 * National Training Laboratories for Applied Behavioral Sciences, Alexandria, VA.

44 Instructional Strategies
Quiz. Games. Role-playing. Brainstorming. Group problem-solving. Lecture. Simulation. Case Study There are several strategies you might want to consider depending on your audience and the purpose of your training. Some of the strategies are particularly relevant for food-safe schools. For example, role-playing could be incorporated by having participants practice talking to a teacher, administrator, or someone else about a particular problem that’s occurring. Several of these strategies are included in the activities in this training manual.

45 The Learning Environment
“I know I cannot teach anyone anything. I can only provide the environment in which he can learn…” Carl Rogers (1969)

46 Defining Student-Centred Learning
Brandes & Ginnis (1986:12) “with student-centred learning, students are responsible for planning the curriculum or at least they participate in the choosing…the individual is 100% responsible for his own behaviour, participation and learning” SCL also known as flexible learning independent learning open/distance learning participative learning self-managed learning

47 Differences between SCL & Traditional Learning
STUDENT-CENTRED Tutors seen as ‘fountains of all knowledge’ Tutor's seen as having ‘facilitator’ role Students adopt passive role Students adopt active role Tutor led Student led Student taught to set syllabus Negotiated curriculum Fixed semesters/terms Flexible study pattern Learning restricted to classroom Learning not restricted to classroom: time, pace, place Set classes each week Group learning via action learning Didactic Utilise range of teaching methods

48 Benefits of Student-Centred Learning
Students can work alone or in small groups, on and off campus have access to range of learning resources other than the tutor can take exams at own convenience can enrol at flexible times of the year take ownership of their learning; become reflective learners and be empowered are more motivated and committed towards learning because they become partners in the learning process can work and learn in partnership Source: McLean (1997) & Educational Initiative Centre (2004)

49 Benefits of Student-Centred Learning
Tutors act as facilitators, guides, mentors work in teams and draw on the help from technicians, librarians, etc are able to work with students to determine teaching and learning strategies develop student’s ability to become a ‘researcher’, accessing multiple sources of information Institutions able to attract non-traditional students & students from diverse backgrounds widen HE participation into the community more ‘bums on seats’!!! opportunity to improve ‘bottom line’ performance gain international reputation tutor time can be freed up to spend on research and attracting research funding Source: McLean (1997) & Educational Initiative Centre (2004)

50 Student-Centered Learning Toolbox
Constructivist Learning Cognitive learning theory Collaborative Learning Tools Motivational strategies Michele Hampton/Gordon Haley

51 Student-Centered Learning Toolbox
Constructivist Learning Driscoll (2000) describes constructivism as the notion that knowledge exists outside of learners and the act of learning consists of transferring that knowledge from outside to within the learner Consequently, learning occurs as learners attempt to make sense of their experiences New information is related to the knowledge and experience already possessed and is used to construct or build new knowledge Learners take an active role in their learning experience (Villalba & Romiszowski, 2001) Michele Hampton/Gordon Haley

52 Student-Centered Learning Toolbox
Constructivist Learning Online courses can be used to assess information that learner’s possess through the use of online pre-tests By determining learner knowledge and experience level, instructors may be able to modify instruction to account for those levels For example, a module could be added that reviews prerequisite skills to help students refresh their memory and to ascertain if students are at the appropriate skill level assumed by the current instruction design Michele Hampton/Gordon Haley

53 Student-Centered Learning Toolbox
Cognitive learning theory Cognitive learning theory provides the foundation for developing effective, credible, and robust distance education instruction. Clark & Mayer (2003) assert “many e-learning courses ignore human cognitive processes and as a result do not optimize learning”. Villalba & Romiszowski (2001) also purports cognitive psychology should be a basis for designing instruction Helping the learner select information that is important to the learning process, minimizing extraneous items that do not add to learning, and integrating words and pictures are techniques that can be used to manage cognitive load Michele Hampton/Gordon Haley

54 Student-Centered Learning Toolbox
Cognitive learning theory Specific examples include: listing learning objectives upfront so the lesson can provide a framework that assists learners in focusing their efforts minimizing visuals, audio, and text that do not add to the learning experience frees up working memory to rehearse information provided in the lesson presenting related pictures and words in close proximity of each other Michele Hampton/Gordon Haley

55 Student-Centered Learning Toolbox
Collaborative Learning Tools Some common collaborative tools are: Chats Threaded discussion boards Online conferencing Interactive tutorials Degree of learner concurrency and the learning goal are the primary factors that can determine which, if any, of the collaborative tools will enhance learning Research shows that learners who study together in an online environment often learn more than those who study alone (Clark & Mayer, 2003) Michele Hampton/Gordon Haley

56 Student-Centered Learning Toolbox
Motivational strategies Keller (1999) offers the ARCS instructional model as a means of integrating motivational tactics into instruction ARCS is an acronym for what Keller (1999) describes as the four dimensions of motivation – Attention (A), Relevance (R), Confidence (C), and Satisfaction (S). Michele Hampton/Gordon Haley

57 Student-Centered Learning Toolbox
Motivational strategies Attention (A) Addresses student interest levels and whether student curiosity is aroused and sustained over a period of time Gaining and maintaining student attention can be achieved through using novel and/or surprising events in instruction, stimulating information-seeking behavior by posing or having students generate questions and then varying the elements of instruction to maintain student interest (Penn State University, 2000). Michele Hampton/Gordon Haley

58 Student-Centered Learning Toolbox
Motivational strategies Relevance (R) Addresses relating instruction to learners experience and values to help them construct knowledge. Adapting instruction to meet learner needs can include the following to help learners integrate new knowledge with previous knowledge and experience : using concrete language using examples and concepts that are related to the learner’s experience and values Michele Hampton/Gordon Haley

59 Student-Centered Learning Toolbox
Motivational strategies Confidence (C) refers to students’ expectations and perceptions regarding the likelihood of their success and who controls that success — the students or the instructor addresses relating instruction to learners experience and values to help them construct knowledge. Informing students of the instructional learning outcomes and providing multiple achievement levels and performance opportunities that allow students to set personal goals and standards to increase the probability of experiencing success positively impacts student confidence March 21, 2006 Michele Hampton/Gordon Haley

60 Student-Centered Learning Toolbox
Motivational strategies Satisfaction (S) focuses on the “learner’s intrinsic motivation and response to extrinsic awards” (Mory, 2003, p.769) Includes the following: providing opportunities for students to practice newly learned skills providing feedback and reinforcements that will sustain the desired behavior maintaining consistent standards and consequences for task accomplishment (Penn State University, 2000) March 21, 2006 Michele Hampton/Gordon Haley

61 Research Findings: McLean (1997)
Table 1: Factors that Encouraged Students to Undertake a Flexible Learning Programme Study whenever have the time 100 Personal development 79 Flexibility: own time, place, pace 76 Inability to attend set courses each week 64 Request a tutorial at own convenience 46 Take examinations in any order 45 Flexible start dates 36 Under no pressure to complete course to deadline 33 Take modules in any sequence 15

62 Another Teaching Method
PRACTICAL EXAMPLES Connecting Theory with Applications SHOW AND TELL Reversing Student Roles CASE STUDIES Bringing “Real-Life” Scenarios into the Classroom GUIDED DESIGN PROJECTS Introducing Practical Design Experience in Classrooms OPEN-ENDED LABS Making Students Think Deeper THE FLOWCHART TECHNIQUE Organizing the Flow of Thought OPEN-ENDED QUIZZES Moving Students Away From Memorization BRAINSTORMING Encouraging Creativity QUESTION-AND-ANSWER METHOD Encouraging Student Participation SOFTWARE Increasing Teaching Efficiency

63 Teaching Improvement Plan Do: Execute your plan
Concept - The concept that you plan to teach Strategy - The teaching strategy that you plan to use Date - The day you plan to use the strategy Materials Needed - The teaching materials that you will need Time Needed - Plan your teaching activity so that you can accomplish all your goals Feedback - Decide on a strategy to obtain student feedback. Consider fast feedback, written reports and observing students’ reactions Do: Execute your plan Check: Review student evaluations Act: Decide on what you would do next time. Stick with the strategy? Change?

64 martani@ui.ac.id atau dwimartani@yahoo.com Accounting Department FEUI
Terima Kasih atau Accounting Department FEUI

65 References Michele Hampton/Gordon Haley
Clark, R.C and Mayer, R.E. (2003). Learning together on the web. In e-learning and the science of instruction (p ). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Pfeiffer. Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Constructivism. In Psychology of Learning for Instruction [Electronic version]. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Keller, J.M. (1999). Using the ARCS motivational process in computer-based instruction and distance education. New Directions for Teaching and Learning (78), Retrieved July 14, 2005, from Academic Search Premier database ( ). Land, S. M. and Hannafin, M. J. (2000). Student-centered learning environments. In Jonassen, D.H. & Land, S.M. (Eds.), Theoretical Foundations of Learning Environments (p. 1-23). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates. Lorenzetti, J. P. (2005). Secrets of online success: Lessons from the community colleges. Distance Education Report, (9)11, 3-5. Retrieved August 11, 2005, from Academic Search Premier database ( X). Macdonald, J. (2004). Developing competent e-learners: The role of assessment. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher education (29)2, Retrieved November 7, 2005, from Academic Search Premier database ( ). Mory, E. H. (2003). Feedback research revisited. Chapter 29. In Handbook of Research for Educational Communications. Retrieved July 28, 2005, from Penn State University (2000). College of Education – Innovations in Distance Education. Integrating Instructional Design and Distance Education: ARCS – Motivation Theory. Retrieved October 26, 2005, from Villalba, C. and Romiszowski, A. J. (2001). Current and ideal practices in designing, developing, and delivering web-based training. In B.H. Khan (Ed.), Web-based training (pp ). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Michele Hampton/Gordon Haley

66 References Brandes, D. & Ginnis, P. (1986). A Guide to Student-Centred Learning’. Simon & Schuster Education, Hemel Hempstead Cannon, R. & Newble, D. (2000). A Guide to Improving Teaching Methods: A Handbook for Teachers in Universities and Colleges’. Kogan Page, London Educational Initiative Centre (2004). ‘What is Student Centred Learning’. University of Westminster McLean, J. (1997). ‘Flexible Learning and the Learning Organisation’. MSc Management Dissertation, Staffordshire University McLean, J., Hall, L. & Muir, J. (2003). ‘Thee Flexible Tutor: From Lecturer to Facilitator’. British Academy of Management Conference, Edinburgh, September 2000 Rogers, C. (1969). Freedom to Learn. Charles Merrill, Ohio